riAPIUAL TRAirilHG 

FOR cormoH schools 



^^ 




Bnok n h 

Copyright!^" 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



MANUAL TRAINING 
FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



MANUAL TRAINING 
FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

AN ORGANIZED COURSE IN WOOD-WORKING 



BY 
ELDRETH G. ALLEN 

M 
INSTRUCTOR IN WOOD-WORKING IN THE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, 

INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 
EDITED BY 

FASSETT A. COTTON 

PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LA CROSSE, WIS. 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

1910 






Copyright, 1910, by 
Chakles Scribner's Sons 







AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

In preparing this book on ''Manual Training" the author has at- 
tempted to be thorough rather than complete. No attempt has been 
made to add anything new to the subject-matter, but only to arrange 
well-known facts so that they will offer as systematic and complete 
a course of study as is offered in any of the older organized courses. 

The arrangement of the text as herein presented is the direct result 
of five years' teaching the subject of wood- working to beginning 
classes. This class work was preceded by a number of years of shop 
work as a journeyman machinist and a factory foreman, as well as by 
a four years' college course in science and engineering. 

Help in preparing the text has been gleaned from so many fields that 
it would be impossible to make direct mention of all who have given 
valuable assistance. The author wishes, however, to acknowledge the 
aid given by Mr. Charles E. Emmerich, principal of the Indianapolis 
Manual Training High School, and Mr. Paul W. Covert, head of the 
manual training department, who have allowed such freedom in the 
conduct of classes that it has been possible to make all parts of the 
work measure up to a class-room test. 

Acknowledgment is due Mr. Otto Stark, head of the art depart- 
ment of the Indianapolis Manual Training High School, for his earnest 
and careful criticism of the models, drawings, and photographs. This 
criticism has added much to the value of the text. 

The final drawings from which the cuts were executed were 
made by Mr. Edward Stark, of Indianapolis. 



vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

The cover design is adapted from a drawing made by Mr. Warner 
Carr in a prize contest in the art department of the school. 

Cuts for Figs. 7, 7a, 70d, 145, 148, 148a, 149, 150, 151, 152 were 
furnished by the Stanle}^ Rule and Level Company, New Britain, 
Conn. 

-The tools, photographs of which appear in the text, were loaned 
by the Vonnegut Hardware Company, Indianapolis, Ind. 
Other acknowledgments are made in the foot-notes. 

E. G. Allen. 

Indianapolis, Ind., 

November, 1909. 



PAGE 



CONTENTS 

Preface • • v 

Introduction • • •. ix 

Notes to Teachers xv 

Chapter I. — Wood-Working 1 

General statement. — Product, material, and tool. — Ordering material. 
— Marking dimensions. — Saws, how made. — Ripping and cross- 
cutting. — Planes, kinds of. — Planing working face. — Grinding 
plane bit. — Parts of planes. — Try square. — To make joint edge. — 
Gauge. — End planing. — Rule, knife, and square. — Summary. 

Chapter II. — The Lap Joint 25 

Mechanical drawing. — The problem of the lap joint stated. — How 
to lay out and make a lap joint. — To square around a piece. — Use of 
back saw. — The chisel. — Making paring cut with chisel. — Summary. 

Chapter III. — The Mortise and Tenon Type of Joint . 48 

Statement of problem. — To lay out and make mortise and tenon joint. 
— To cut a mortise with a chisel. — To remove the bulk of the stock in 
a mortise with an auger bit. 

Chapter IV. — Joints and Other Materials Used in Wood- 
Work 57 

Lap joints. — IMortise and tenon type of joints. — Butt joints. — ^Nliter 
joints. — Dowel joints. — Methods of joining boards in the direction 
of their widths. — Cleating. — Miscellaneous joints. — Nails. — Tacks. — 
Hammers. — Standard wood screws. — Glue and gluing. 



viii CONTENTS 

CiiAi'TKR V. — ^TooLS Grouped According to Their Use . 79 

^Irasuriiiji; and hiyiiiti; out tools: historical uoto. — Layinjii; out tot)ls. 
— Try s(juaro. — Tables of board and bract' measure on the framing 
S(juare. — The tee bevel. — To set bevel to (HF and 120°. — Cutting or 
edge tools. — Saw. — Planes. — Chisels. — Gauges. — xVuger bits. — Bit • 
braces. — Miscellaneous tools. 

Chapter VI. — ^^^^ood Finishing . . 112 

The object of wood finishing. — Painting and hard-wood finishing. — 
The scraper and its use. — Sand-papering. — Selection of finishing ma- 
terials. — Wood staining and coloring. — A few formulas for making 
stains. — Fuming. — Wood filling. — Varnishing. — Brushes. — Wax fin- 
ish. — Painting. — Care of finishing materials and the finishing outfit. 

Chapter VII. — Some Essentials of Constructive Design 143 

W^hat the designer must know if he is to get the best and most economi- 
cal production. — Facts which the designer should know. 

Chapter VIII. — Suggestions for a Course of Study in 
Wood-Work 148 

P.\RT I. For Seventh and Eighth Grades. — Problem 1. — 

Problem 2. — Problem 3. — Problem 4. — Problem 5. — Bench hook. 

Group 1. — Problems in working a piece of wood to three 

dimensions. 
Group 2. — Problems in lap joints with review of problems in 

first group. 
Group 3. — Problems in use of the mortise and tenon joint. 
Part II. Course of Study for High School. 

(jROUP 1. — Review of working to three dimensions, the lap and 

the mortise and tenon joints. 
Group 2. — A grouj) of suggestive problems. 
Group 3. — A group of suggestive pictures. 

Appendix 209 

Index 213 



INTRODUCTION 

The child is both physical and spiritual, and education must, 
therefore, consider both body and soul. Grace and beauty in form, 
strength and health of body, and skill in execution, are all matters 
that must be provided for in the course of study. The aesthetic and 
hygienic phases of child life have been recognized, and when the 
practical side receives the attention which it merits, head, hand, and 
heart will become allies in education. Every child must be taught 
to work, and to the degree in which the home neglects this part of 
his education, the school must, whether it would or not, take up this 
phase of his training and carry it to completion. The course of study 
of the future will provide a complete system of manual training 
through the grades and high school. 

ADJUSTMENT OF WORK OF HEAD AND HAND 

When this course is finally perfected it will be a complete adjust- 
ment of the work of head and hand. All hand work will supplement 
head work. All mere "busy" work, that is to say, work without 
educative value, placed in the course of study to keep the children 
quiet, will be eliiiiinated. Manual training, that is, work that will 
put the children in possession of themselves and tend to fit them 
for the work that they are likely to do in life, will have passed the fad 
and experimental stage and will be part and parcel of the educative 
process. 

It may be that the so-called academic subjects, such as grammar, 
geography, and arithmetic, will be taught more intensively, and that 
fully as much time will be given to the hand work as is given to the 



X INTRODUCTION 

former. The element of utility will determine almost wholly the 
work chosen and the stress to be placed upon it. Children are easily 
interested in doing things that are really worth while. Work that 
becomes burdensome to either teacher or pupil loses much of its 
educative value. It may be that in the schools of the future the 
academic and manual departments will be carried on by different 
teachers, capable of doing their own work well, but able to relate the 
two lines of instruction. Until this can be realized, however, the 
schools as at present organized must do what they can toward train- 
ing the hand, and a little ingenuity on the part of the teacher can 
bring surprising results from very meagre resources. 

SOME PRACTICAL MANUAL TRAINING WORK 

The following suggestions can be carried out in the grades, espe- 
cially by teachers who are interested in any phase of manual or 
industrial education. 

The possibilities of drawing in legitimate directions are almost 
unlimited. Accurate constructive work in drawing is of the highest 
educative value, both in itself and for the aid it may render the other 
subjects. The teacher who draws well and makes frequent use of the 
blackboard out-distances all of her associates in the profession who 
cannot draw. Every phase of nature study furnishes work in draw- 
ing. Geography can be made doubly interesting and effective with 
pencil and chalk. Arithmetic affords constant opportunity for con- 
structive work. All teachers should learn to teach drawing, if for no 
other reason than to be able to use it in other departments of school 
work. 

Then there is apparatus of all kinds to make, and home-made ap- 
paratus is the very best kind. It not only gives the children excellent 
drill in practical manual training work, but it supplies the school 
with needed apparatus at the least possible cost. 



INTRODUCTION xi 

One of the most valuable assets in a teacher's equipment is a set 
of tools and the ability to use them. It is no mean accomplishment 
to be able to design and construct a plain gate. It takes commend- 
able skill to make a simple picture frame, and the different ways of 
fitting pieces into perfect squares call for much practice. A square, 
a saw, a hammer, a chisel or two, a brace and a bit will furnish an 
admirable outfit. The making of a simple piece of apparatus, a box, 
gate, fence, shelf, or frame for the boys may show the way. As simple 
an equipment looking toward household industry may serve the same 
purpose for the girls. There is the designing, cutting, and making of 
simple garments, to say nothing of other activities in the home which 
make their chief and lasting appeal to girls. All these and more may 
be attempted, and may be made to supplement the work in the tradi- 
tional subjects of study. Besides furnishing the very best of manual 
training work, they add interest and charm to the older lines of study. 

With intensive, interesting, complete work, based upon the home 
life and industry, running through the grades, and the elimination of 
all dead, mechanical work based upon tradition, there would be time 
for much real manual training: bench work for the boys, much closer 
to the trades than manual training in the high school, and sewing 
and cooking for the girls. Such work carried through the grades 
would make more intensive, efficient work possible, and would be the 
means of attracting a larger number of pupils from the grades into 
the high school. In the high school, work may be undertaken look- 
ing toward higher, more systematic courses in college. 

EDUCATION MUST BE INDUSTRIAL AS WELL AS ACADEMIC 

The problem of education is industrial as well as academic. Of 
the thirty-two million bread-winners in this country, some thirty 
million must work with their hands. Education must, therefore, 
exalt the dignity of labor; it must teach habits of industry; it must 



xii INTRODUCTION 

give ability to apply one's self to the problem in hand; it must meet 
the demand for accurate, skilfid work. Tlie scliool work must be 
more practical tor the great army of children in the grades, four- 
fifths of whom never reach the high school. 

One great defect in school work in this coimtr}^ is that we have 
assumed in both the grades and high school that all children are of 
equal ability, and that their abilities lie in the same direction, when 
neither assumption is true. We have not caught the notion of equal 
opportunit}', and then gone about providing for the training of the 
several abilities so as to fit men and women to meet the actual con- 
ditions of Hfe. Education has aimed, and still aims, to train the 
head, and not the head and hand. It has prepared for college in- 
stead of for living. It has been too bookish — adapted only to those 
who can follow a long educational career. It has trained men for the 
careers of lawyers, preachers, doctors, teachers, and leaders, though 
there are not enough of these positions to go around. It has pre- 
pared the bosses, and has not thought of skilled labor in the ranks. 
In this sense it has been practical, but it has not met the needs of the 
common people, the overwhelming majority of whom must continue 
to work with their hands. We must make more adequate provision 
in our schools for the education of those who must begin early to earn 
their living. 

BOYS AND GIRLS SOON TO BECOME BREAD-WINNERS 

One of the greatest criticisms that can now be made upon our 
schools, city, town, and country, is that no tangible, vital relation exists 
between school education and the other essential forms of education. 
Since the home and the farm and the shop no longer train the chil- 
dren efficiently, there is a greater call upon the school to take up the 
work so cast off. But the school has not assumed the responsibility 
nor met the new demand, and it cannot do so as at present organized. 



INTRODUCTION xiii 

The great majority of the children in school to-day will shortly need 
to become bread-winners, and they will have to work with their hands. 
They will take up every form of industry. The farm and factory 
and mine and shop wil-l demand skilled labor. It is doubtful whether 
the schools of town, city, or country are doing the best that can be 
done for these children. No impractical thing, nothing that raises 
impossible ideals and false hopes, nothing that belittles or ignores 
honest work and lessens efficiency, should have time and place in 
the schools. The nature and needs of the particular child must 
determine what shall be done. 

If this nation is to endure, all of the people must be educated. If 
they are to be prosperous and happy, they must be intelligent, tem- 
perate, industrious, skilful, and constantly employed. These quali- 
ties come only with the right kind of education. They make for man- 
hood and womanhood. 

The proper introduction of manual and industrial training in the 
grades and in the high school will be the means of keeping larger 
numbers of boys and girls in the schools through both the grades and 
the high schools. It will raise the average inteUigence in the country, 
and will direct larger numbers of our young people toward the higher 
institutions of learning. 

So, in the way indicated, industrial training is to get a foothold in 
the schools. Its development depends upon the teacher. It is a ques- 
tion of the teacher's abihty to use the material at hand — material 
furnished by the home life of the child and the industrial life of the 
community. A consideration of experiences in the shop and on the 
farm will furnish the very best opportunity for teaching the dignity 
of labor, and for showing the advantages of farm life and other in- 
dustries. It will open a way for showing how to proceed intelligently 
in any occupation. The main thing is to teach the boy and girl how 
to attack a problem and to carry it to a successful solution. And 
they need to be taught that skilful execution is one of the chief 



xiv INTRODUCTION 

factors in success of any kind. From the stand-point of character- 
building, it matters but little upon what problems pupils work, but 
the attitude displayed and the habits formed as they attempt a 
solution are matters of great moment. Intelligent attack, orderly 
procedure, skilful execution, painstaking completion, habits of in- 
dustry, good, honest work, respect for labor, the ability to do things 
— these are the qualities that belong to real education. 

THE WORK OFFERED IN THIS BOOK 

The work offered in the following pages is intended for the boys 
in the seventh and eighth grades, and the first and second years in 
the high school. 

It will be found valuable to teachers of these grades, both for its 
method and its subject-matter. It is a course of study in wood-work, 
particularly, for the boys of the grades named, while at the same 
time it gives enough of method and device and direction to make 
successful work possible without making it burdensome. It does not 
presuppose on the part of the teacher special training in the manual 
arts, but, on the contrary, brings to the untrained teacher the help of 
a specialist, who furnishes in the following pages an abundance of 
carefully graded problems that admit of solution in shops of simple 
construction and equipment. Given a teacher of average ability, 
and some appreciation of the meaning of the new movement in edu- 
cation, and this book will quickly find its proper place in the industrial 
development of the boys of the community. 

F. A. Cotton. 



NOTES TO TEACHERS 

Teachers should recognize the fact that the principles of peda- 
gogy used in presenting the academic subjects are the basis of all teach- 
ing, and that they should be applied to the teaching of industrial 
subjects. 

The first and indeed the greatest difficulty encountered in teaching 
wood-work is to begin in such a way that the child will do a definite 
thing and at the same time not be swamped in the number and variety 
of tools and operations which he must use. To that end it will be well 
to keep the following well-known facts in mind. 

1. The work must be definite and must proceed from the simple 
to the complex by easy and successive stages. 

2. No work should be assigned to a child which it cannot do in a 
reasonable time and with some degree of success. 

3. One new fact or one new operation is all that should be included 
in any assignment, and it is by no means necessary that every assign- 
ment include something new. 

At first the interest of the pupils is centred in the tool, for it is 
new to them. The teacher who does not take advantage of the new- 
ness of the tools to develop some little skill in their use and a knowledge 
of the working parts, before the novelty is gone, places upon himself 
and the pupil a dead load which must be lifted later. 

In the beginning the child has no standard of accuracy. He does 
not know the requirements of a working face or a joint edge, or when 
a joint is well fitted, and such knowledge is difficult to get from a 
book. 



xvi NOTES TO TEACHERS 

Tlie class demonstration should furnish this infoi-mation. The 
teacher should be careful, however, not to make a demonstration too 
long, and should leave a sample of his own work where the pupil can 
refer to it as a standard. 

The knowledge and skill of the teacher should always be an in- 
spiration to the class. 

No pupil should be allowed to begin a piece of work, however 
simple, until he has a clear statement of the problem. 

The first four problems in the suggested course of study are ar- 
ranged so as to centre the attention of the pupil on a single tool and 
its use. The frequent references made to the main text call the at- 
tention of the pupil to the fact that the first problems do not include 
all that Is necessary for them to know. They will soon reahze that 
they are enjoying a handicap and will not object to having it gradually 
removed. 

One of the most difficult problems for the teacher i,s to aid the pupil 
in selecting a suitable article to make. As a rule, the pupil will want 
to make something which requires much more time and skill than he 
has. To begin a piece which the pupil is not able to finish leads to 
discouragement and waste of time and material. On the other hand, 
the work must be serious enough to call for his best effort and the 
result must appeal to the pupil as being worth while. In the beginning 
classes it is believed that the freedom of choice from a small group of 
models or drawings will insure better class teaching and more direct 
results than will come from the use of a larger group. 

The subject of trees and their uses should be the object of outside 
reading. 

The growth of trees is considered in any complete work on botany. 

l\iblications of the government department of forestry furnish 
valuable information on the subject of forestry and lumbering. These 
publications are fice. The encyclopaxlia will give much interesting 
information on lumbering and any i)articular kind of tree. 



NOTES TO TEACHERS xvii 

The school library or the shop reading-room should be supplied with 
catalogues of builders and cabinet hardware and lists of lumber which 
are on sale in the locality. 

When all possible has been said, the text and the course of study 
are but tools in the hands of the teacher, who is the master mechanic. 

E. G. Allen. 



MANUAL TRAINING 
FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Three ele- 
ments of 
wood- 
work. 



CHAPTER I 

WOOD-WORKING 

If we look at any piece of wood-work we see at once that it consists 
of wood modelled or shaped to meet certain conditions. The wood, 
the raw material, is changed by the use of the tool to meet the condi- 
tion of the product. We have before us, 
then, the three elements of wood-work — 
the Product, the Material, and the Tool. 
Try as we may, we cannot get away 
from these three. We cannot do any 
one thing in wood without bringing in 
all three. The thoughtful wood-worker 
— that is, the one who plans or designs . 
the product and carries it through to 
completion — must know certain funda- 
mental things about the three elements 
spoken of above. 

The questions to answer are: Can 
these facts be grouped into a systematic 
whole so that each step in the process of construction will appear in 
the proper relation to the others; and is there a fund of knowledge * 

, . 1 1 • 1 General 

that IS general which can be used m a modified form to solve any fund of 

. , 1 1 o knowledge. 

special problem ? 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Character- 
istics of 
wood. 



Two kinds 
of tools. 



Dp finite 
order of 
proceed- 
ure. 



It will be the object of this and succeeding chapters to answer 
these questions and finally to make such an arrangement of the facts 
as will meet the needs of the several school grades in which the sub- 
ject of wood-work may be taught. 

Since wood is to be our material, we must get a piece of wood and 
examine it to learn its most noticeable characteristics. If we look 
at the wood closely, we shall see that it is made up of fibres that run 
parallel. If we cut it with a knife, we note at once that it cuts much 
more easily in the direction of the fibre than it does at right angles 
to it. 

If we wish to shape the piece of wood to meet any required condi- 
tion, and look for the necessary tools with which to do it, we shall find 
two types, or kinds, of saws and two kinds of planes, or at least the 
parts of the saw and plane which cut the wood are made of different 
shapes. One shape is made for cutting in the direction of the fibre, 
or grain, and one at right angles to it. The nature of the change we 
wish to make in the piece of wood will determine the kind of tool we 
shall select. 

Product, Material, Tool 

Thus, from the very first we must consider the product, the material, 
and the tool, and in the order named. Too much emphasis cannot be 
put upon this order of procedure, the "product, the material, and the 
tool. 

Some will say, and, in fact, some proceed as though the product 
were the last thing to be thought of. In the natural order of things 
our desire or want leads to some particular thing, and with the defi- 
nite end in view we start out to find ways and means of producing 
what we want. The nature of the desire will determine the kind of 
material and the tools to use. The order of procedure then is sim- 
})ly this: State your problem — select your material — choose your 
tools. 



WOOD-WORKING 3 

Inasmuch as we are beginners in wood-work, our product must be 
simple. It will, therefore, call for only a simple statement, will need 
but little material, and will require the use of the most common tools. 

Suppose we are working in a lumber yard and receive the fol- 
lowing order: Send one piece of pine, two inches thick, four inches 
wide, and two feet long. We have here the simplest problem that 
we could have. It includes but one piece of wood and gives in 
plain terms the necessary three dimensions. If the above order ^^j^^^ 
included several pieces of different dimensions the statement given °^'^'^^, 

'■ ^ complex. 

would be too long and too complex to follow. Because of this com- 
plexity the following form for writing an order for lumber has been 
adopted : 

Please send the following, Pine: , , 

*' Order for 

1 piece 2" x 4" x 10' — Read : two inches by four inches by ten feet. f'"' ^^ 

*^ lumber, 

12 pieces 2" x 4" x 16' — Read: two inches by four inches by sixteen feet. 
10 pieces 1" x 12" x 14' — Read: one inch by twelve inches by fourteen feet. 

The two small marks to the right and above the figures, 2, 2, 1, and 
4, 4, 12, as ("), mean inches, and the one small mark to the right 
and above the figures 10, 16, 14, as ('), means feet. If we notice care- 
fully we shall see that the thickness of all the pieces is expressed by 
the first figure, the width by the second, and the length by the third, 
and that each one is placed in the proper column the same as the units, 
tens, and hundreds that we wish to add. There are several reasons 
for this form, but the best is that it is the one in common use among 
lumbermen, and consequently will be better understood by any one 
who may be called upon to fill the order. By designating the kind 
of material at the head of each list we avoid the necessity of writing 
it before each piece. 

With the ability to state our problem we are ready to consider the 
material and the tool. 

We will proceed to fill the following order: Pine or Poplar: First 
1 piece If X 4'' x 24'', finished to thickness, width, and length. We ^tTted."* 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Measuring 
tools. 



Divisions 
or gradua- 
tions on 
ruler. 



Mark or 
lay out di- 
mensions. 



Material 
left for 
finishing. 



must measure our lumber, and if we do not have such a piece in stock 
we must cut it from a larger piece. The measuring instrument used 
is generally the two-foot rule or the carpenter's square, shown in 
use in Figs. 1 and la, respectively. 

Each line on a ruler is called a graduation line. All of the lines are 

referred to as the scale, and we 
speak of the scale divisions, mean- 
ing the number of parts into which 
the ruler is divided. The rules 
used in wood-working are gradu- 
ated or divided into sixteenths, 
eighths, quarters, and halves of 
an inch, and into inches. 

If we are to cut out a piece 
of wood, we must measure it and 
mark the measurements so that 
we can cut quickly and accurately 
without repeated measurements. 
The piece we are to make is to be well finished, and in making 
the first saw cuts some material must be left for finishing with tools 
which cut smoother and better than does the saw. In the present 
case, an eighth of an inch in 
thickness, one-quarter of an 
inch in width, and one-half 
of an inch in length will be 
sufficient material for finish- 
ing. The rough dimensions 
will be ir X 4^ X 2^'\ 
These rough dimensions may 
be marked out with the grain, 
with a lead-pencil and rule, 

as in Fig. 1. The thumbnail Fig. la— cross Lining with PencU and carpenter's square 




Fig. I — Rough Lining with Pencil and Rule 




WOOD-WORKING 




Fig. 2 — Chisel-shaped 
Teeth of the Rip Saw 



is held against the edge of the board as a guide, the pencil is held 
against the end of the rule, and both hands are moved along together 
for the required distance. Cross lining is done with the pencil and 
square held as in Fig. la. When the piece is laid out or marked out 
we are ready to saw. 

We have said before that saws are made in two ways — one for t^o kinds 

•^ of saws. 

cutting with the grain and one for cutting at right angles to it, or, as 
they are called, the rip saw arid the hand or crosscut saw, respectively. 

How can we tell one from the other? If we examine the saws Thenp 

saw. 

carefully we shall find that one of them has teeth 

shaped like a row of chisels set one back of the 

other, as in Fig. 2. 

The face or front side of each tooth is at right 

angles to the side of the blade. Inasmuch as the 
teeth of this saw are made like a chisel, we will cut the wood 
with a chisel and see in which direction of the grain it works best, 
with the grain as at a (Fig. 3), or across the grain as at h (Fig. 3). 
We find that the chip, or shaving, at a is smooth and clean 
cut, while at b the 
wood is split or bro- 
ken. The test shows 
that the saw with the 
teeth shaped like the 
chisel will cut best 
with the grain. This 
tool is the Rip Saw. 

If we take a knife 
and cut the fibre of 
the wood at e and / 
(Fig. 3), and then cut 
between these lines 

with a chisel, we again Fig. 3 — Chisel cuts illustrating the Cutting Action of the Saw Teeth 




6 



IMANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Crosscut 
saw. 



Shape of 
crosscut 
saw teeth. 




We 

one 
In 



Fig. 4 — Shape of Hand 
or Crosscut Saw Teeth 



Set. 

Bendinj; of 
saw teeth. 



Saw out 

rouKli 

stock. 



get a smooth, clean cut, as at a, only at ri^^ht angles to the gi-ain. In 
this latter cut two tools, the knife and the chisel, work together. 

An examination of the handsaw or crosscut saw teeth (Fig. 4), will 
show how tlie knife and the chisel may be combined so as to cut wood 
at right angles to the fibre. 

The saw teeth represented in Fig. 4 show that the point of the first 
tooth (a) is on one side of the blade, and the 
adjacent point (cr) is on the opposite side, 
shall find the adjacent points alternating from 
side to the other the entire length of the saw. 
action, the point (/) will cut the fibre on one side 
of the blade, and cr will cut it on the other; 
each doing the work of the knife. The chip will 
be carried out by the chisel-shaped end, as at a. 

All saws are set, that is, the adjacent teeth 
are bent in opposite directions, to make the saw 
cut, or kerf, wider than the blade, in order to 

])revent the saw from 
sticking in the wood. 
(See Fig. 5.) Care 
should be taken not 
to confuse this bending with the shape 
of tlie two types of teeth. 

This will give us sufficient knowledge 
to select the saws for the problem that we 
are to solve. The wood has been marked 
off or, as is usually said, is laid out, and 
we are now ready to saw. 

Place the large board on a convenient 

rest. A pair of stands, one of which is 

shown in Fig. 6, called Saw Horses, are 

Fig. 6-starting the Rip Saw generally used. Take the rip saw in the 




=^ asr .^ ^ 



Fig. 5— Bending of Teeth 
to Make Saw Cut or 
Kerf Wider than the 
Blade of the Saw 



WOOD-WORKING 



hand, with the first finger extending along the handle, as is shown in 

Fig. 6; this extended finger lielps to hold the saw steady and to 

guide it. Place the other hand on the board, letting the thumb 

rest against the saw blade, to form a stop or guide until the cut is 

well started. Grip the saw firmly, but not so rigidly that the muscles 

are set and stiff. The cut should be made with 

a long, steady stroke, and the saw should be 

held square with the face of the board. To 

do this the small square, about which we shall 

learn more later, may be placed on the board 

and the blade of the saw kept parallel with the 

blade of the square. (See Fig. 6a.) The saw 

cuts best when held at an angle of about 

45° to the face of the board, as shown in 

Fig. 6. - 

The crosscut saw is held and squared the 
same as the rip saw. (See Fig. 6a.) The first 
stroke, however, should be back against the 
teeth, that is, toward you, in order to prevent 
the wood from splitting on the edge. Do not 
bear down on a saw of any kind, and be sure to 
take long, steady strokes. When the piece is sawed out we are 
ready for finishing. 

Our problem is to finish this piece of pine to the required dimen- 
sions, If X 4'' X 2\ The order of procedure should be as follows : 

(1) Measure the piece to make sure it is large enough to meet the 
requirements. (2) Examine it carefully to see that there are no 
flaws that will render it worthless after we have spent valuable time 
upon it. (3) Select the best face. Hold it up and sight over it 
both from the end and from the side, to see if it is warped or twisted, 
or, as the carpenter would say, "To see if it is in wind." (4) Make 
this face a true plane by planing. 



starting 
the rip 
saw. 



Squaring 
tiie saw. 




Fig. 6a — Squaring the Saw 



Problem. 

Order of 
proceed- 
ure. 



8 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Kinds of 
of planes. 



As has been said, we have two types of planes — one for cutting 
in the direction of the grain (Fig. 7), and one for cutting at right 
angles to it (Fig. 7a). How can we tell these two apart ? 

Even a hasty glance at these two planes will show a marked differ- 
ence. The cutting part of Fig. 7 stands much more nearly perpen- 
dicular to the base of the plane than does that in Fig. la. The size 




Fig. 7 — Plane for Cutting with 
thie Grain 



Fig. 7a — Plane for Cutting across the 
Grain (Block Planet 



Many 
kinds of 
planes. 



Necessity 
for two 
kinds of 
planes. 



and general shape of the two are so different that the worker will 
readily learn which one to use for the work in hand. 

There are many forms and shapes of planes, but those forms 
which we shall need to use in the solution of our problem are all that 
we shall consider at the present time. 

If we have ever done any close, accurate work with tools, we know 
that tools for such work must be sharp, and that if they remain sharp 
they must not be overworked by cutting out too much material at' 
once, or by cutting into rough, dirty places. For this reason the wood- 
worker has two planes very much alike, the principal difference being 
that the cutting part of one plane is shaped for removing a large 
amount of material without much care as to the condition of the 
surface, while the cutting part of the other is siiaped to remove a 
small amount of material and at the same time leave the surface of 
the wood in a smooth, finished condition. 

The cutting iron, or plane bit, for removing a small amount of 
material is shaped as in Fig. 8. The plane bit for removing a large 



WOOD-WORKING 



9 



amount of material is shaped as in Fig. 8a. If a deep cut should be shape of 
made with a plane bit like the one shown in Fig. 8, set into the edge of 
wood as in Fig. 9, the wood at a and b would be split or torn 
from the body of the piece and leave rough, ragged edges. If we 



rn 



f — \ 



(J 



(J 



Fig. 8— Plane Bit for 
Removing a Small 
Amount of Material 
(Smooth Plane) 



Fig. 8a— Plane Bit for 
Removing a Large 
Amount of Material 
(Jack Plane) 




Fig. 9 — Deep Cut with Smooth 
Plane Bit 




Fig. 10— Deep Cut with Jack 
Plane Bit 




Fig. 1 1 —Condition of Sur- 
face After Cut, as Shown 
in Fig. 10 



cut with a bit like the one shown in Fig. 8a, set into the wood as in 
Fig. 10, the shaving would be cut throughout the entire width and 
the surface left uneven, as in Fig. 11, but clean cut. 

We notice that the corners of the bit in Fig. 8 are slightlv rounded. 

mi • • 1 • T 1 11 o ^ Jack plane 

Ihis IS to 'prevent scratchmg. In short, the plane bit for doing rough and 

I 1 T 7 T-.7 11 • i^ to smooth 

work, the Jack Flane, has the cuttmg edge ground oval; while the plane. 
cutting edge of the plane iron for doing smooth work, the Smooth 
Plane, is ground straight across with the corners slightly rounded. 



10 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



The rounding of the corners of (he smooth plane is all done on the oil- 
stone. 
Lensthof Ordinarily in speakin"; of the kind of lilane the length of the base 

planes. - i ^ ^ 

or stock enters into consideration: 

Smooth Plane, 5" to 10'' 
Jack Plane, 12'' to 15" 
Fore Plane, 18" 
Jointer Plane, 22" to 24" 

The Jack Plane is from 12" to 15" long only because this is a con- 
venient length. The principal difference between it and other planes 
is the shape of the cutting edge of the bit or cutting iron. 

There is one more question about planes in general that concerns 
us here. Why are some planes longer than others ? If we wish to 

plane a surface like Fig. 12, 
and use the short plane, we 
can readily see that it will 
follow the surface and make 
it smooth, but it will not 
make it straight. The waves 
or larger inequalities will remain always the same. If we use a 
long plane, as in Fig. 13, it will reach over the low places, ultimately 



Short and 

lout? 

pianos. 




Fig. 12— Irregular Surface Planed with Short Plane 



General 
statement 
for use of 
l)lanes. 



_2_ 



A^L 



making the surface straight. 

The following statements 
with regard to the use of the 
planes may be made: (1) Use 
the smooth plane on small 
pieces, on surfaces that have 
previously been made straight by the use of a long plane, and on 
surfaces that do not need to be made perfectly true. (2) Use the 
roughing plane or Jack Plane to remove a large amount of material. 
(3) Use the Fore Plane or the Jointer Plane for surfaces and edges 



Fig. 13 — Irregular Surface Cut with Long Plane 



WOOD-WORKING 



11 



that need to be very accurate. The bits for the fore plane and 
jointer plane are ground the same as for the smooth plane (Fig. 8). 
As the planes are used the names of the parts should be learned, ^ea™ 

'■ '■ trade vo- 

The trade vocabulary should also be learned as far as possible, more cabuiary. 
by contact and necessity than by any actual drill in such terms. 

With the knowledge we have of planes, we can now choose the 
proper ones to use in filling our order. We have measured our piece 
of stock, have examined it carefully and have made sure that there 
are no cracks, knots, or other serious defects, and have chosen the 
best face, page 7. 

Planing the First or Working Face 

The first or working face is very important, for it is the base of 
all measurements, and mistakes made in this face will be carried 
to all the other faces. The single face as a base of all measurements 
makes use of a general principle which is very important in all work 
which requires accurate measurements. A simple statement of this 
principle is: In measuring, use as few starting-points as possible. 
For example, if we are to measure from a to h, b to c, and c 
to d (Fig. 14), and use a as a starting- 
point to measure a — 6; 6 as a starting- 
point to measure h — c, and c to measure 
c — d, we shall have three chances to 
make errors in measuring from a to d, 

and every intermediate error will be added to every other; thus we 
shall be constantly adding errors. On the other hand, if we measure 
from a to b, from a to c, and from a to d, there will be but one chance 
for mistake in each measurement, and any intermediate error will 
not affect the measurement from a to d. Too much stress cannot be 
put upon this principle. 

After sighting across the face and marking the high spots with 
a pencil, the Jack Plane should be used to remove the rough surface, 



A rule for 
measuring. 



Fig. 14 — Measiu-e from as Few Points as 
Possible 



12 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



How to 
sharpen a 
plane bit. 



Shape of 

cutting 

edge. 



Grind- 
stone. 



Oil-stone. 



Principle 
of cutting 
edge. 



o 



K^ 



K 



then the smooth plane for finishing. The cutting iron, or plane bit, 
should be sharp and very keen, so as to remove the material or stock 
with the least effort, and at the same time leave the surface of the 
I ' — wood in good condition. 

To sharpen the bit, it should be 
removed from all other parts of the 
plane, as in Fig. 15. If the edge is 
blunt, or has nicks in it, it must be 
ground on a grindstone, as in Fig. 16; 
Fig. is-piane Bit Ready for Grinding ^ rcpreseuts the plane bit; 6 the 

grindstone, and the arrow the direction in which the wheel is turning. 

When ground the bevel of the cutting edge should be, as in Fig. 17, a 

straight line from 1 to 2, or 

should he slightly concave, 

as in c (Fig. 17). 

The grindstone is 

coarse and leaves a rough 

burr, or feathery edge, 

which must be removed. 

This is done on the oil- 
stone, as in Fig. 18. 

Much care should be 

taken to keep the bevel always flat on the stone, in moving the bit 

from a to 6 (Fig. 18). Always avoid such a change of position as is 

shown in a — b (Fig. 19). 

The principle of the cutting edge of any tool is the same as the 

principle of the wedge. 
The thinner the wedge the 
easier it is to drive it. But 
the wedge as well as the 
tool must be thick enough 
to stand the strain of 




Fig. i6 — Position of Plane Bit on 
Grindstone 



Fig. 17 — Correct Bevel 
for Cutting Edge of 
Plane Bit 







-^--g'""':^y"^^~~v^ 



Fig. i8— Correct Method of Oil-Stoning Plane Bit 



WOOD-WORKING 



13 



being driven or pushed into the wood, or the material that is to be 
spht or cut. From this it will be seen that in grinding a tool to be 
used on hard wood the bevel would need to be more obtuse than for 
cutting soft wood. If we have ground a tool to the bevel (1 — 2) 
(Fig. 17), and oil-stone it. as a — h (Fig. 19), instead of having the de- 

I 





Fig. 19— Incorrect Method of Oil -Stoning Plane Bit 



/=\ 



m 



o 



Rane Iron 
Caa^ 



r\ 



Fig. 20 — Incorrect Oil-Stoning 
Changes the Angle at the 
Cutting Edge 

sired bevel at the point, it would have a bevel as 1 — 2 (Fig. 20), which 
would be too blunt to cut well. The prol:)lem of grinding the tool and 
keeping it in order is one of the most difficult that the mechanic has to 
solve. Skill in grinding comes only after continued use of the tool. 

With the bit ground and made smooth on the oil-stone, we can 
now proceed to put it into the plane. In 
doing this, we find several parts the names 
and uses of which it will be well to know. 
The first part to be added to the bit is the 
plane iron cap (Fig. 21). This should be 
placed about one thirty-second of an inch 
from the cutting edge. The object of this 
cap is well shown in Figs. 22 and 23. If 
the bit is set into the wood, as in Fig. 22, 
without the cap, the shaving will slip up the bit as at a, and as 
the bit advances into the cut the shaving will break farther and far- 
ther ahead of the cutting edge, thus causing the wood to split in the 
direction of the grain. This will leave a rough face, as at h. If the 



f . 



Fig. 21 — Plane Iron and Cap 



SkUl in 
grinding. 



Plane iron 
cap. 



Use of 
plane iron 
cap. 



14 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



cap be added to the bit, set as directed above, and the bit set into 
the wood, as in Fig. 23, when the plane advances the shaving will 
strike the cap, as at c, and will be broken before it has leverage 




Fig. 22 — Plane Bit Cutting without Cap 



Fig. 23 — Plane Bit Cutting with Cap 



enough to split ahead. The fibres will be cut and the surface of the 

wood left smooth. 
Double The bit without the cap is called the single bit, and with the cap 

pune'iJon. IS callcd the doublc bit. 

The bit and cap are now ready to be placed in the stock. See B, 




Fig. 24— Plane Stock, Bit and 
Clamping Iron Removed 



Fig. 25 Complete Plane Ready for Use 



Principal Fig. 24. Tlic wliolc basc of the plane, including the hantlle, is generally 

j^iYiie."^ referred to as the .s/or/v of the plane. The bit should bo placed in the 

stock, cap up. Care sliould always be taken not to strike the cutting 



WOOD-WORKING 



15 



edge on any of the iron parts of the plane. Shp the clamping cap (D) 
(Fig. 25) under the screw (F), and push down the clamping lever (E) 
(Fig. 25). The screw (F) may be adjusted so that when the clamping 
lever (E) is pushed down the bit will be held firmly in place. Hold 
the plane as in Fig. 26; move the adjust- 
ing lever (A) (Fig. 24) until the cutting 
edge of the bit is parallel with the face of 
the stock. Turn the adjusting nut (C) 
(Fig. 25) until the bit is drawn above the 
surface of the stock, then turn it slowly or 
gradually downward until it cuts the re- 
quired shaving. A very thin shaving is 
all that is needed. The tendency is to 
cut the shaving too thick and to remove 
too much stock from the working face. 
To test this face use the Try Square 
(Fig. 27). The square should be held as in 
Fig. 28. The beam (Fig. 27) is held up to 
avoid the tendency to place it against the 
irregular unfinished edge. The square in 
this position is used only as a straight-edge. 

The 




Fig. 26 — Adjusting the Plane Iron 



-Scale 



> 



Blade. 



Beam. 



Fig. 27 — Try Square 



face should be tested 
every two or three strokes of the 
plane. The object is not to re- 
move material or stock, but to 
make the face a perfect plane. 
By holding the work toward the 
light one can readily see whether 
or not the blade of the square 
touches the wood across the 
entire face. Tests should be 
made every inch or two the 



Adjusting 
the plane. 



Cut thin 
shavings. 



Parts of 
try square. 



Try square 
used as a 
straight- 
edge. 



16 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Test work 
often. 



Car- 
penter's 
square as 
straiplit- 
edse. 



entire leii<;tli of (lie i)ie('e. Sight across the f'aee from end to end, 



Mark 

workinK 

face. 



to make sure the face is straight. 



If the piece is short it may be 
tested with a straight-edge, as 
in Fig. 29. The long blade of 
the carpenter's square is a good 




Fig. 29 — Carpenter's Square Used as 
Straight-Edge 



Fig. 28 — Try Square Used as Straight-Edge 

straight-edge for such a test. 

When the face is finished it should 

be marked, for, as we have said, it 

is to be used as the base for all measurements. This face is now 

said to be jointed and ma}' })e marked No. 1, or with a corner mai-k 

spoken of later. 

To Make a Face at Right Angles to Face No. i 



Tr.v square 
used as a 
square. 



Squaring 
edge. 



Test the edges adjacent to No. 1 with the try scjuare, as in Fig. 30, 
holding the beam of the square against face No. 1 . Select the best 
edge, or the one most nearly square with No. L Sight over this edge 
to see if it is straight. If not, plane the high places until it is, then 
plane and test as in Fig. 30, until the blade of the square rests on the 
wood across the entire surface. Tests should be made often, every 
two or three strokes of the plane, as was done in face No. 1, for on 
this edge the object is not to remove stock, but to make an edge 



WOOD-WORKING 



17 



Joint edge. 




Fig. 30— Testing Edge for Squareness 



at right angles to the working face. In testing with the try square 
it should never be slid down the piece, for if the face of the beam 
is tipped at an angle the blade will be also, and will not give a true 
test. The square should be lifted free from the surface and set down 
carefully every inch or two. 

When the edge is made straight and 
at right angles to No. 1 it is called the 
joint edge, and may be marked No. 2. 
Or instead of marking these two faces 
No. 1 and No. 2, a good way to mark 
them, and one in common use, is shown 
in a — h (Fig. 31), the line a — h indicating 
the faces that have been jointed. Only 
these two faces should be marked, and 
these should always be marked. 

We now have the working face and the 
joint edge and can proceed to face No. 3. The 
first step was to get a true plane ; the second 
step to make a true plane at right angles to 
the first. The third step is to make a plane 
at right angles to the first and at a given 
distance from the second face. The best way to make the third step 
is to mark the exact dimensions by drawing a line on No. 1 at the 
given distance from No. 2. For making such a line parallel to the 
grain and parallel to a marked edge or face, the marking gauge, 
Fig. 32, is used. 

The single lines on the beam of the gauge are called graduations, 
while the whole set of lines is called the scale, the same as in any 
rule. The marking point, or the spur (Fig. 32), should be sharp- 
ened to an obtuse wedge shape, as in c (Fig. 33). The spur thus 
sharpened will make a very shallow line, though one which is easily 
seen. 



Use square 
carefully. 




Fig- 31 — Corner Marks Show 
Working Face and Joint Edge 



Making 
third face. 



Parts of 
marking 
gauge. 



18 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Setting the 
gauge. 



Keep head 
of gauge 
on a 
marked 
face. 



In setting the gauge it should not be assumed that the scale 
on the beam is correct, for when the spur is sharpened it is not 
likely that the point will come at the zero mark on the scale. We 
may, however, assume that the scale is nearly correct. The head 
may be set to the required dimension and the set screw turned 
lightly against the beam. Then with a separate scale, as in Fig. 34, 



Set Screw or Thumb Screw. 



Scale. 



~ II 



III 



Beam, 




Head. 
Fig. 32 — Marking Gauge 



Fig- 33— Method of 
Sharpening Spur 
for Marking Gauge 



the measurement may be tested and the head brought to the proper 
dimension by a light tap on the bench. The set screw is then made 
tight and the measurement checked by measuring again to make 

sure that the head has 
remained in position. 
The screw (c) and the 
slot (.s') (Fig. 32) are 
for clamping the spur 
and holding it in posi- 
tion as well as to allow 
it to be removed for 
sharpening. 

In making a line 
with the gauge the head 
should always he held against a marked edge or face. The face of the 
beam from which the spur projects is made oval (a) (Fig. 32), 
and should alwa3^s be placed in contact with the surface upon which 




Fig. 34 — Setting the Gauge to Exact Dimensions 



WOOD-WORKING 



19 




gauge line. 



the line is to be made (Fig. 
35). The hand should be 
placed on the gauge as in 
Fig. 36, the thuml) being 
placed directly back of the 
spur. The oval face of 
the beam admits turning so 
that the spur may be made 
to cut a deep or a shallow 

line. When the line is made ^'^- ^S-Positlon of Gauge for Making a Line 

it should be exactly parallel to the joint edge, or face No. 2. 

To test the line, place the head of the try square against face No. 2, 

or joint edge, as in Fig. 37, and 
slide it along the edge, keeping close ^estin 

o / 1 o trill iL'e 

watch of the gauge line and the 

corresponding graduation on the 

square. The line should be straight 

and uniform 

throughout 

the entire 

length of the 

piece. If the 

ends are to 

be planed 

to length it 

must be 

done before 

the third 
side is jointed. (See end planing at the end 
of chapter.) 

The above conditions all met, we can now ■ pianing 

plane the third face. If we follow the line on ^gne '^wTa the xrj^sfu^f fac? ^"^' 




Fig. 36 — Holding the Gauge for Making a Line 




the llllt 




20 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

face No. 1 the tliinl vd^o will be straight, and if we scjuare with 
face No. 1 we shall have filled all the required conditions. 
Splitting' In planing to a gauge line we should always plane to the centre 

of the line, for in setting the gauge (Fig. 34) the centre of the spur, 
or marking point, is placed in the centre of the required scale grad- 
uation, therefore the centre of the line will mark the required dimen- 
sion. This is what the wood-worker calls splitting the line (Fig. 38). 

If the line is made 
shallow the corner 
of the piece will be 
left in good con- 
dition. Frequent 

Fig. 38— Splitting the Line with Plane ^^^^ ShOUid be made 

of the try square, 
as was done in making the joint edge. (See Fig. 30.) The last shav- 
ing should split the line and leave the third face square with the 
working face, or No. 1. 
Thefburth The fourth and last surface is made square with the joint edge 
(face No. 2) and at the required distance from No. 1 , the working face. 
This will involve no new feature except that we can make a line on 
faces Nos. 2 and 3, which will do away with the necessity of using the 
square so much. 

End Planing 

If the ends of the piece are to be planed to an exact length, the 
end planing should generally be done before the third side is planed. 
End planing is not easy, however, and we shall learn in the succeed- 
ing chapters that in many cases it can be dispensed with altogether or 
left until later. The workman should use his own judgment, and he 
must know the purpose for which the piece is to be used. 

To plane the ends of a piece of wood to exact dimensions we must 
first make careful measurements of the length and mark those meas- 



WOOD-WORKING 



21 





Fig- 39— Correct Way to Lo- 
cate Point with Knife and 
Rule 



Fig- 39a — Incorrect Method of Locat- 
ing Point with Knife and Rule 



urements with exact lines. To measure and mark those exact Hnes, 
we shall have to use the rule, the knife, and the square. 

When making an exact measurement the rule or scale should 
be placed edgewise on the piece to be measured, as in Fig. 39, and 
never as in Fig. 39a, 
for in the latter case 
the scale lines will be 
so far from the face 
of the piece that the 
measurements can- 
not be located accu- 
rately with the knife 
point. The mark made by the knife point should be so small that a 
line drawn through it will entirely erase it. Note Fig. 396 and Fig. 
39c. The knife should always be used 
for making careful measurements, for 
the pencil makes too large a mark. 
The knife used in making lines should 
be ground as in Fig. S9d. The point 
should be sharp but ground at an ob- 
tuse angle, as at b (Fig. 39(i). A knife 
thus ground will make a positive 
shallow line. It will spread the fibres of the wood so that the centre 
of the line may be easily seen and worked to. The 
knife ground as in c (Fig. 
39d), is so thin that it sinks 
too deep into the wood. The 
fibres are not spread apart, 
the line is not so easily seen 
as is the one made with the 
, ^ .. obtuse blade. The centre is not visible and is so far 

Fig. 39d —Knife 

pomt for Making ^^yr^y fi-oni the visible part of the line, as C (Fig. 39e), 



Rule, knife, 
and square 



1 

Correct 






\ 

Incorrect 


Line + Point 




Line + Point 



Fig- 39b — Correct 
Line and Point 



Fig. 39c — Incorrect 
Line and Point 







Fig. 396- 



B, Correct Line; C, In- 
correct Line 



Knife 
point for 
makiuf; 
lines. 



22 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Makinj? 
line with 
knife and 
square. 



that it does not mark the required dimensions. From this it will 
be seen that the point of the knife for making lines is a very im- 
portant thing in accurate wood-work. 

With the measurements made and located by a small mark of the 
knife point and the knife properly ground for making a line, place 
the point of the knife in the mark, put the head of the try square 



"l 




B 






4 


w 




Wmf 








^ M 




i^ -w/ 


i 






Wi 


^^^^H 


WmJ 






^'-. 




■r 






■ 


■ 


1 


H 


^^^I^M 




m 


■ 


■ 



Fig. 39f— Putting Knife and Square in Position to 
Draw Line 





Fig. 39g- 



Knife and Square in Position for 
Drawing Line 



Fig. 39h— Drawing the Line 



on face No. 2, or the joint edge as in Fig. 39/, push the square up to 
the knife (Fig. 39^), and draw the line as in Fig. 39/i. Turn the piece 
from you, place the point of the knife in the end of the line just drawn, 



WOOD-WORKING 



23 



\J 






Fig. 39i — Putting Knife and Square in Position for 
Drawing Line on Edge 



Fig- 39J — Knife and Square in Position for Draw- 
ing Line on Edge 




Fig. 39k — Piece Lined for End Planing 



put the head of the square on face No. 1, or the working face, Fig. 39i, 
push the square up to the knife as in Fig. 39j, and ch*aw Hne across 
the joint edge. 

When the piece is ready for squaring, the ends and third face will Piece laid 
be marked, or laid out, as in Fig. 39/:. It will, however, be best to endpian- 

. . ing. 

saw close to the end line before planing. 
We must learn early that the saw is the 
best tool for removing large amounts of 
material. If the end sawing is clone care- 
fully with a saw that has fine teeth it will 
take but a few strokes of the plane to 
bring the end to the line and make it smooth. Before planing 
cut off or bevel the corner as at a (Fig. 39Z). 
The object of the bevel is to prevent split- 
ting the wood when the plane cuts off the edge 
of the piece. 

The Block plane, made especially for end 
planing is shown on page 8 (Fig. 7a), though a 
good, sharp, smooth plane may be used to ad- 
vantage especially on hard wood and large ends. 
The try square should always be used to test the ^'s- ^^'i'^d'pifninr*"^'' ^°' 




24 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Planinir 
iiwiinst 
block. 



squareness of the end as it was in testing the joint edge (page 
17) (Fig. 30). The squaring should be done both from the 



^-^v^:^^^nK 




Fig. 39m — Block Back of Piece in Vise for End 
Planing 



joint edge and the working face. 
If there is not enough stock to 
make a bevel large enough to pre- 
vent the edge from splitting, a 
separate piece may be clamped in 
the vise back of the edge as in 
Fig. 39m, and the planing be done 
across both pieces. Or the planing 



mav be done from both edges toward the centre. 



SUMMARY 

The first piece finished, we have learned the following: 

Elements of wood-work and their order — Problem, Tool, Material. 

How to write an order for a bill of lumber. 

General facts about the saw. 

How to tell the crosscut saw from the rip saw. 

Kinds of planes — some of their uses — the names of the parts — how to care for 

and adjust them. 
Measuring from a single startiiig-j)()int. 
.Joint edge and working face. 
Planing a surface. 

Use of try square as a straight-edge and as a square. 
Carpenter's gauge — the parts and how to use it. 
Planing a piece of wood to given dimensions. 
The knife and square for making lines across the grain. 

We are now ready for more advanced work. 



CHAPTER II 



THE LAP JOINT, WITH SEQUENCE OF DRAWINGS AND TOOLS 
NECESSARY FOR QUICK, ACCURATE PRODUCTION 

Material Required : Pine or poplar, 2 pieces 1^/' x If' x 5''. 

One-half the thickness of the first piece is to be cut out If' from 
the end, back. The centre of the second piece is to be cut out so as 
to receive the end remaining on the first piece after cutting out one- 
half the thickness of the material, as ordered above. The two pieces 
must fit perfectly, two sides of the first being level or flush with two 
sides of the second. The small end of the first must be even or flush 
with one edge of the second. The other end of the first must extend 
back on the opposite side 3f'. When completed the joint resembles 
the capital letter ''T." 

The above is one of the most simple, as well as the most common 
ways of joining two pieces of wood; but if one were not familiar with 
such a joint it is doubtful if the statement 
of the problem would be sufficient to give 
a clear idea of what is wanted; though 
the attempt has been made to state the 
problem as clearly as possible in words 
alone. For such a simple problem, a 
photograph or a perspective drawing, as 
in Fig. 40, will assist very much in giving 
an idea of the general shape. Or we might 
make use of illustrated description, as was 

25 



Written 
statement 
of prob- 
lem not 
sufticient. 




Fig. 40 — Picture or Perspective Draw- 
ing of Lap Joint 



26 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Photo- 
graph not 
sufficient 
statement 
of problem. 



Mechani- 
cal draw- 
ing the 
lansruaKe 
of the me- 
chanic. 



done in giving tlie names of the parts of the plane, Figs. 24 
and 25, page 14. Even for a single joint, these methods are cum- 
bersome, and it is obvious that they are limited to very simple 
problems. 

If we had an article of wood-work involving many joints and 
pieces, as in Fig. 40a, either method would be altogether inade- 
quate, for, while we can see at 
a glance the shape of the ob- 
ject and the various parts, the 
exact size and the way of 
uniting them cannot be shown, 
for many of the most import- 
ant details are concealed from 
view. This being the case, it 
\\\\\ be necessary for us to have 
a more definite as well as a 
general way of stating our prob- 
lems. 

If we go to the factory or 

workshop we shall find a picture 

and word language in general use 

which, though simple in princi- 

p\e, is capable of being used to 

express the most complicated 

problem of construction. Some 

knowledge of this language is 

necessary for the designer or the workman who would go beyond 

the first step in design or construction. This language is Mechanical 

Drawing. 

Our prol)lem for the next few pages will be to learn the funda- 
mental principles of this language, in order to state the present 
problem correctly and definitely. 




Fig. 4oa — A Photograph Does Not Give Details of 
Construction 



THE LAP JOINT 



27 



Mechanical Drawing 




Fig. 41 — Perspective Draw- 
ing or Picture of Block 



The mechanical drawing is distinguished from the photograph or 
perspective drawing, in that it does not give the whole object in one 
view or picture. It must have two or more views. For example 
Fig. 41 is the perspective, or picture, of the same 
object which is represented by a mechanical draw- 
ing in Fig. 41a. The difference between these 
two methods of expression is that in Fig. 41 the 
object is looked at from one point, as in Fig. 42. 
But in Fig. 41a the object is viewed not from one 
point but from many points, and always in parallel 
lines, as in the direction of the arrows (E) (Fig. 43). 
The object or the eye is moved in such a way that 

each point is viewed by itself. From the positions 
E, E, E, etc., only the elements of side (^1) will be 
seen. From F, F, F, etc., we get the elements of B. 
The positions E, F, G, 
as well as any other po- 
sitions from which the 
object may be viewed, 
are always at right an- 
gles to each other. 

Any one can see that 
Fig. 41 represents an 
object having three di- 
mensions. It is not so easy to see that Fig. 41a 
represents the same object, or that it gives more 
exact information than does Fig. 41. In Fig. 41a the lines are 
given in their exact length and the surfaces in their exact sizes; 
while in Fig. 41 some of the lines and surfaces are viewed at an 
angle and appear shortened. 





Fig. 42— Block Viewed from One Point 



Fig. 4 1 a — Mechanical 
Drawing of Block 
Shown in Fig. 41 



Difference 
between 
mechanical 
and per- 
spective 
drawing. 



28 



MANUAL TllALNINC; FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



The prob- 
lem of me- 
chuiiicul 
drawing. 



Plan and 
elevation. 




Fig. 43 



-Block Viewed from Many Points and Always in Parallel 
Lines 



The methcxl of vicnving the object, and of placing and interpreting 
the different views, are the difficult problems of mechanical drawing, 

and in fact are the basis 
of the whole subject. 

Our problem now is 
to understand the three 
fundamental parts of me- 
chanical drawing: 

(.4) The view points. 

(B) Placing of the 
views. 

(C) Interpreting the 
meaning of each view. 

If an object stands on 
its natural base, as the 
cylinder in Fig. 44, the 
view we get from the direction of the arrows (C) will be the Plan, 
and the view from the direction (D) will be the Elevation. 

If we consider a cube, as in Fig. 43, where there is no natural 

base, any side may be taken 
as a base and the views 
made accordingly. 

The plan and the ele- 
vation are always at right 
^viewld7?om°the augles to cach 
other and 
represent the horizontal and 
the vertical views respec- 
tively. What we really see 
in the direction of the 
arrows (C) (Fig. 44) is a 
circle, as in Fi<2:. 45. From 





Fig. 44 — Viewing Cylinder to Get Plan 
and Elevation 



Fig. 46 — Cylinder 
Viewed from the 
Side 



THE LAP JOINT 



29 




Elevation 



the direction of the arrows (D) we see an object as represented in Fig. 46. Placing 
As Fig. 45 and Fig. 46 now stand there is no relation between them, and eieva- 
and unless the mechanic has followed all that has been said about the proper re- 

1- 1 1 • 11111 1 • lations. 

cylmder the two views thus placed would not suggest one to him. 
If we place the views as in Fig. 47, the plan directly above 
the elevation and joined to it by dotted lines, and make 
the agreement that we will always place the views of a 
drawing in the same relation, the mechanic will see at 
a glance that the two views represent a cylinder. 

Fig. 48, Fig. 49, and Fig. 50 are the pictures, or per- 
spective drawings, of the objects which are represented 
mechanically in Fig. 48a, Fig. 49a, and Fig. 50a, re- 
spectively. 

We note as these three objects are represented here 
that the elevations are the same, while the plan of each 
is different. If we turn Fig. 48 in either direction, but 
leave it upon the same base, neither the plan nor the 
elevation will change, for the object is symmetrical. If we turn 
Fig. 49 upon its base to the position of Fig. 51, the mechanical 
drawing will be as in Fig. 51a. If turned as in Fig. 52, the drawing change of 
will be as in Fig. 52a. If Fig. 50 is turned as in Fig. 53, the mechan- 
ical drawing will be as in Fig. 53a. 

We see from this that while the plan has been turned at an angle 
it is the same as before and has no added lines, while the elevation 



Fig. 47 — Plan 
and Elevation 
of Cylinder in 
Proper Re- 
lation to Each 
Other 



Similarity 
of eleva- 
tions. 



\ie\v point. 





Fig. 48— Perspective 
Drawing of Cylinder 



Fig. 49 — Perspective 
Drawing or Pictiire 
of Block 



Fig. 50 — Perspective 
Drawing of Triangu- 
lar Prism 



30 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Elevation 





elevation. 



Elevation 



Fig. 48a— Mechanical 
Drawing of Cylinder 



Fig. 49a — Mechanical 
Drawing of Block 



Fig. 50a — Mechanical 
Drawing of Triangu- 
lar Prism 






Fig. 51— Picture of 
Fig. 49 in Different 
Position 



Fig. 52 — Picture of 
Fig. 49 in Changed 
Position 



Fig. 53 — Picture of 
Fig. 50 in Changed 
Position 






Fig. 51a — Mechanical 
Drawing of Fig. 49 in 
Position of Fig. 51 



Fig. 52a — Mechanical 
Drawing of Fig. 49 in 
Position of Fig. 52 



Fig. 53a — Mechanical 
Drawing of Fig. 50 in 
Position of Fig. 53 



THE LAP JOINT 



31 



Fig. 54 — Picture of Perspective Drawing of 
a Rectangular Block 



has changed. It is, therefore, evident that there may be a number of 
elevations of the same object. 

In practice, the first view made is the one which will give the most The first 

view. 

information; that is, the object is viewed at right angles to the most 
important surface. 

Placing the Different Views 

In Fig. 54 there are two end elevations (C) and (D); two side 

elevations (A) and (F), and a top and 

bottom plan (B, G). If we make the 

plan (B) (Fig. 54a), then the front side 

elevation (A) will be below and the 

back elevation (F) will be above, the 

right end elevation will be (C) to the right, and the left end ele- 
vation will be (D) to the left. 

In other words, the position of the view tells which part 

of the object is repre- 
sented by it. The right 
end to the right, the 
left end to the left, 
the front elevation be- 
low the plan, and the 
rear elevation above the 
plan. These facts are 
fundamental and 

should always be re- 
Fig. 54a — Mechanical Drawing Showing Different Views of Rect- i j 
angular Block Shown in Fig. 54 memDereCl. 



r 




; 




B 




C 






A 





Showing Invisible Lines 

is a block with a round hole in it. 



Fig. 55 
!h a 
of the block from the end has told us the hole is there, and 



From the end Dotted 
such a hole would be visible, but from the side it is not. The view 



32 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



o 




L I 



while the block is not transparent, 
we can imagine it is and represent 
the invisible sides of the hole with 
dotted lines, as in Fig. 55. Fig. 56 
shows a block in which the hole 
does not pass entirely through. 
Lines which are invisible from any 
view point are made dotted in that 
view. 

The object in Fig. 57 is repre- 



Fif- 55 — Dotted Lines Fig. 56 — Dotted Lines 

in Elevation Show Locate Hole Which .... -p^. _ 

Where Hole Would Does Not Pass En- SCntcd mechamcallv m h 12,. 57a. 

Be if We Could See It tirely Through Piece ^ & 




Plan 



Elevation. 



Fig. 57 — Perspective Drawing of Rectangu- 
lar Block with a Rectangular Hole 



Fig. 57a — Mechanical Drawing of 
Fig. 57 



The Number of Views Necessary 

In Fig. 54a B gives the length and width, .4 and F the length 
and thickness, and C and D the width and thickness. Any two 
of the views would give the necessary three dimensions. In practice, 
no more views are made than are necessary. There must always 
Two views bc two vicws, for a single view can give but two dimensions. If 
necessary, either end, face, or side is different from the corresponding end, 
face, or side, then more than two views may be necessary to avoid 
confusion. 



THE LAP JOINT ' 



33 



Scale of Drawings 

In all of the above consideration of mechanical drawing it is 
assumed that the drawing is the size of the object. It is evident 
that the usefulness of such drawings will be limited. We therefore 
make them to suit our convenience, as, for example, one-half size, one- 
quarter size, etc. Or, if the object is small, the drawing may be larger 
than the object itself. The size of the drawing in relation to the 
object is called the scale. We can choose any scale we like, but hav- 
ing once chosen, the same scale must be followed throughout. The 
scale may be written in two ways, either by writing ''Scale half size," 
''Scale quarter size," etc., or 6''=!' (read six inches equals one foot), 
4''=1' (four inches equals one foot), etc. The scale is only for the 
use of the draftsman. The mechanic should never measure a drawing 
to get a dimension; but use the dimension given. No drawing is com- 
plete which is not accompanied with full dimensions carefully and 
plainly written. 



Writing 
scale on 
draw- 
ings. 



Dimensions on Mechanical Drawings 



The dimensions on a mechanical drawing always give the full writing 

^ ./ o dimen- 



size of the object, regardless of the scale. 

In order to give the dimensions a positive beginning and end- 
ing, the figures giving the 
dimensions are placed in the 
centre of a dash line, as in 
Fig. 58 and Fig. 58a. At 
the ends of the line are 
placed arrow heads, (x, y) 
(Fig. 58a), the points of 
which mark the exact limits 
of the dimensions called for by the figure in the line. The dimension 



sions on 
drawings. 




Fig. 58— Dimensions Given on the Picture or Perspective 



34 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



To avoid 
confusion 
of lines. 



Correct 
and incor- 
rect di- 
mension 
lines. 






Fig. 58a— Mechanical Drawing of Fig. 58, with Complete Dimensions 



The sum of 
a series of 
dimen- 
sions. 



Writine of 
fractions. 



line should always be parallel to the line or opening, the dimension 
of which is given by the figure at its centre. 

In order to avoid confusion with other lines, the dimension lines 
should be placed outside of the drawing wherever it is possible to 
do so. If outside of the drawing, dotted lines should lead out to 

^ ^., jjb the points of 

-rthe arrow 
]. heads as at x, 
I y (Fig. 5Sal 

A dimension 
line should 
never be a 

continuation of any line in the body of the drawing, as at a, h (Fig. 
59), but should be placed either up within the drawing, as at a\ 6' 
(Fig. 59a), or what is still better, outside of the drawing, as at a\ 
b' (Fig. 59a). 

Several dimensions may be placed 
in a series, as in Fig. 5%. The 
mechanic should never get dimensions 
by measuring the drawing, and if a 
series of dimensions are given, as in 
Fig. 596, the sum of the series must 
be given as shown. Figures must be 
made plainly and never less than one- 
eighth of an inch in size. 

Fractions must always be written 
with a straight dividing line, as U, 
never with a slanting line as ^^/le. 
The latter fraction may be read in 
two ways, lA or 
assurance that either 
mistakes. 



*- iT-Ji^ 1 1 



a D 

3caie l"-2" 

Fig. 59 — Incorrect Placing of Dimension Line 













a' 


*- iC- 


b" 



Scale 1"- 2" 

Fig. 59a— Correct Placing of Dimension Line 



1 a 
1^> 



3cale 1' 2" 

Fig. 59b — The Sum of a Series of Dimensions 
Must Be Given 



with equal 
is correct. This would lead to many serious 



THE LAP JOINT 



35 




Fig. 60 — Incorrect 
Position of Deci- 
mal Points 



A whole number and a fraction should be written as l^^, so that 
the dividing line comes opposite the centre of the whole number. 
The figures in a mechanical drawing should be written perpendicu- 
lar, as I, or horizontal to the right, as w. 

In writing the marks that mean inches and feet, or any other write aii 
symbol, care should be taken to put them in their proper places and carefuiiy. 
to make them of proper size; for example, 1^'', or 1^', or 11', or 10'. 
If they are written carelessly, as l^il, or llll, or 10||, we should not 
know what was wanted, for the symbol might be taken for a figure. 

Symbols should always be placed in the right 
position with reference to the figures with which 
they go. If the symbol for inches in the fraction Y 
were written |-„ the two small lines would have 
no more significance than would a decimal point 
placed at a in Fig. 60. 

In short, every symbol, figure, or part of a me- 
chanical drawing says but one thing, and, if correct, 
cannot be made to say more or less than the idea it is meant to convey. 

The Problem of the Lap Joint 
Stated 

We are now able to state our 
problem and proceed at once 
with the more simple forms of 
construction. Figs. 61 and 61a 
will be readily recognized as 
the perspective and mechanical 
drawing, respectively, of the lap 
joint that we have attempted 
to order in other ways on page 
25. Fig. 61a is all the state- 
Fig. 6i-Perspective^Drawmg^of Lap Joint with ^^eut of the problcm that We 




36 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Combine 
parts for 
planing. 



General 
problem. 



Measuring 
line. 



need. In il we liavc given every dimension niid (Ik kind of material 
to be used. We note tluit the joint is made of two i)ie('es of |)()phir 
eaeii 1^" x If'xo". If we order our stoelv, or material, all in one 
piece and make it to the required thickness and width before we cut 

^ 5- ^ it in two,' we shall be al)le to make 

both pieces with but one handling of 
t the tools. As in ordering the first 
'^ piece we will allow one-eighth of an 
-^ inch in thickness and width, and one- 
half of an' inch in length for finishing. 
I ^ The mill order for the stock will be : 
f Poplar (or Pine) —1 piece— If' xl|"x 



*— If — ^ — 1 f — >k— If — ^ 










3' 
4 








1 



5" 



i 



T 



lOi". 



J 



SCflLC 2'' a"* 



How to Lay Out and Make a 
Lap Joint 



Fig. 6ia 



Mechanical Drawing of 
Lap Joint 



The first step, planing the stock to 
the required dimensions, is merely a re- 
view^ of the first problem, pages 1 to 20, 
inclusive. The end planing may be omitted and the piece left one- 
half an inch too long. The reason for this omission will appear as 
the work progresses. ' 

The problem now is, how shall we proceed to make Part 1 and 
Part 2 (Fig. 616), from a piece as shown in No. 1 (Fig. 61c), with the 
least amount of work, and at the same time be sure that we shall 
have a w^ell-macle joint when each part is finished? 

This is a general problem and we may omit the dimensions because 
the method of laying out the joint will be the same for all dimensions. 

The ends of the piece are rough and uneven, as they were left 
by the saw. It will therefore not be possible to make accurate 
measurements from the ends. In such cases we make a line near 



THE LAP JOINT 



37 



the end from which all measurements are made, as a — a^ (No. 2, 
Fig. 61c). This we call the measuring line. 

Read carefully the use of the Rule Knife and Try Square for 
making lines (pages 22 and 23) (Figs. 39/ to 39j, inclusive). 




Fig. 6ib — Perspective Drawing of the 
Parts of the Lap Joint 



To lay out Part 1 (Fig. 616), from a—cr (No. 2, Fig. 61c). Measure 
the required distance and draw to h — 6^ (No. 3). 

With the beam of the square on face No. 1, draw h — c and h' — c^ 
on face No. 2 and face opposite (see No. 4, Fig. 61c). With the gauge 
set for the requiied thickness and the head of the gauge on face No. 1, 
draw c — d (No. 5, Fig. 61c) to the end, d — d^ across the end, and cP — 
c^ on the face opposite No. 2. 

This gives lines bounding the piece to be cut out of Part No. 1 
(Fig. 616). To locate the length of part No. 1, measure the required 
distance from a — a' (No. 6, Fig. 61c), and square the lines e — /, / — g, 
g — h, and h — e around the piece. 



To lay out 
part No. 1. 



38 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Nol 





No. 5 



No 2 





No. 6 



No 3 





Ho. 7 



Nq4 

Fig. 61C-N0S. I to 8 Inclusive Give Successive 




Steps in Laying Out and Making Part i of Lap Joint ^ 



To Square Around a Piece 

tne line e~f, and proceed to draw the line as 



THE LAP JOINT 



39 



in Figs. 39i and 39j, page 23. To draw g — h, turn the piece from 
you and proceed as before, except that the head of the square must be 
against face No. 2, as in Fig. 62. Draw the hne h — e. With the 
beam of the square on face No. 1, 
h — e and / — e must exactly meet 
at the point e; if not, a mistake 
has been made. The worli should be 
checked, the mistake found and cor- 
rected. 

The accuracy of all work depends 
upon the accuracy of the lines. 

We are now ready to remove the 
part X (No. 6, Fig. Glc)- To do 
this we shall need two new tools, the 
bench hook (Fig. 63), and the back saw (Fig. 65). The bench hook Bench 

" V t hook. 

is used to hook on the edge of the bench, as in Fig. 64. The end 




Fig. 62 — Drawing Line on Fourth Face of 
Piece 




Fig. 63 — Mechanical Drawing of Bench Hook 



Fig. 64 — Bench Hook on Edge of Bench 



piece (h) holds the hook from slipping on the bench. The piece 
(a) is to push against while sawing or chiselling, and the base (c) 
prevents the top of the bench from being sawed or cut by edge 
tools. 

The back saw (Fig. 65) is a saw with a thin blade and small Back saw. 
teeth, made for accurate smooth sawing. The teeth are shaped 



40 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



starting 
the saw 

flit. 



nearly like those of the crosscut saw (Fig. 4, page 6). A slight change 
is made in their shape, so that the saw will cut with the grain 
as well as across it. 

The blade of this saw is so thin that it is not stiff enough to stand 

being pushed into the wood For 
this reason the stiffening piece (B) is 
placed on the back. The saw gets 
its name from this back piece. 

With the above knowledge of the 
bench hook and back saw, we can proceed to cut out x (No. 6, 
Fig. 61c). 

Place the piece on the bench hook, as in Fig. 66. Place the hand 
and saw on the piece, as in Fig. 66a. Hold the thumb against the 




Fig. 65— Back Saw 





Fig. 66 — Piece Placed on Bench Hook 
Ready for Sawing 



Fig. 66a — Hand and Saw in Position for 
Starting Saw Cut 



blade until the cut is well started. The first stroke of the saw 
should be back against the teeth and toward the body of the piece. 
This backward stroke of the saw is to prevent splitting at the edge 
where the fil)r(' would have no support if the saw were pushed 
forward. Keep the saw in a slanting position until the cut has 



THE LAP JOINT 



41 



reached the opposite corner (Fig. 666). Saw on the hnes b — c and 
b^ — c^ to c and c'^ (No. 7, Fig. 61c), so as to leave a square shoulder. 
If care has been taken to make a line with the knife ground as di- «pii;t'ng 

" the line 

rected in Fig. 39d (page 21) it will be easy to split the line, leaving ^'^^ ^^^ 
one-half of the line on the shoulder we wish to keep. 

This last statement is very important, for if the cut is made 
as directed the face of the shoulder will not require any further 
finishing. 

There are two ways of cutting to the lines c- — d, d — d\ and 
d^ — c\ If the wood is soft and straight grained the stock may be split 
out with a chisel, as in Fig. 67. If we are working in hard or cross- 
grained wood, it is much better to saw out the stock, as in Fig. 67a. 
To split out the stock will require the use of two new tools, the 
chisel and the mallet. The mallet and its use will be considered in 
the next chapter. 

The Chisel 

The chisel is ground and oil-stoned exactly as the plane bit f^^Hl''' 
(Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, pages 12 and 13> To test the ^^isei!" 
sharpness of the chisel, put a piece 
of soft wood in the vise and cut 
the corner across the grain. If 
the cut is smooth the chisel is 
sharp. If the fibres are pushed 
together, making the surface of 
the cut rough, the chisel should be 
sharpened. 

The size of the chisel is designated 
by the width of the cutting edge, 
as i'', l'\ ¥\ etc., ranging by eighths 
up to one inch and in quarter inches 

from one to two inches. ^'^- 66b-Cut St^tecL^^Position of Hand on 




42 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Bevelling 
to lines. 



If the stock is to be chiselled out, cut out all but about one-sixteenth 
of an inch of it, then bevel both edges to the centre of the lines, leaving 
the centre of the piece high, as in Fig. 676. Pare down the centre, as 




Fig. 67 —Splitting Out Stock with Chisel 

in Fig. 67c, and test the face, or cheek, of the chiselled cut with the 
square, as in Fig. Q7d. The face, or cheek, of the piece should be 

even with the centre of the lines across the 
entire face, and should be square with the 
marked face. 

Making a Paring Cut with a Chisel 




Fig. 



676 and Fig. 67c both show the 

method of holding the chisel when it is 

desired to make a careful cut. The handle 

of the chisel is gripped with one hand. The 

thumb of the other hand is placed on top of 

the blade and the forefinger below resting 

against the piece. The chisel is worked as 

a lever with the thumb and forefinger as a 

fulcrum. This gives the workman perfect control of the cutting 

st'ock"^""^ edge of the chisel and is called the Paring Cut. If the stock is 

sawed out, as in Fig. 67a, the cheek should be tested with the square, 

as in Fig. 67d, and merely the rough fibres pared off with the chisel. 



Fig. 67a — Sawing Out Stock 



THE LAP JOINT 



43 




Fig. 67b — Bevelling Edge to Line 



Part 1 may now be cut from Part 2 (No. 8 of Fig. 61c). In this 
case half the Hne should be left on Part 1, as that is the permanent end 
we are cutting. 

To lay out Part No. 2, turn the piece so that the face opposite '^"^[''^ °"^ 
Face No. 1 is up (No. 1, 
Fig. 68). If the end is not 
square, a measuring line 
(i—P) should be made, as 
was a — cr, Part 1, page 38, 
Fig. 61c. From the meas- 
uring line (i — P) measure 
to the required distance 
and make line k — k^ 
with the square, as the 
lines were drawn in 
Part 1, No. 3, Fig. 68. 
Place Part No. 1 on 
Part No. 2 so that the 
shoulder on No. 1 
comes exactly to the 
centre of line k — k^ 

(see No. 4, Fig. 68), and draw line m — nf (No. 5, Fig. 68), using the edge l^/^lf^°^'^ 

of Part No. 1 as a square. This method of °^ «."r«''"- 

^ position. 

locating a line is called the method of 
superposition. 

With the head of the square on Face 
No. 1 draw the lines k — 0, k' — o' and 
m — n, uv — ir half-way across Face No. 
2 and the face opposite. With the head 
of the gauge on Face No. 1, and with 
it set exactly, as it was in making the 
lines c, d, etc. (No. 5. Fig. 61c), draw 




Fig. 67c — Paring Centre Down to Side Lines 




Fig. 67d— Testing Surface of Chisel Cut 
with Try Square 



44 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




No. 3 




No. 5 




No. 7 



m' k' 




No. 8 




No. 10 



Fig. 68 Nos. X to 10. Inclusive. Fig. 68 Show the Successive Steps in Making Part 11 of Lap Joint 

the lines n~o and n^-o^ (No. 7, Fig. 68). This gives us the 
boundary for the piece R to be cut out of Part 2. 



ct 



To remove R (No. 7, Fig. 68), saw to the lines k~k\ etc. . and m~7n^ 
c. (as m No. 8, Fig. 68), just as we cUd to shoulder line b-^b% etc' 



THE LAP JOINT 



45 




Fig. 68a — Removing Stock from Part II of Lap Joint 



(pages 40 and 41, Figs. 66, 66a, and 666), being very careful to leave one- 
half of each line on the body of the piece. Read carefully the rule for 
sawing to the line, page 41. 
R is cut out with the 
chisel, as in Fig. 68a, b}^ 
turning the stock in the vise 
and chiselling to the centre 
from each side. Bevel to 
the lines and leave the cen- 
tre high, as in Fig. 686. 
Pare centre level with lines 
and test with the try 
square, as in Fig. 68c. The 
head of a square must be 
on a marked face. Cut 
the ends to length and Part No. 2 is finished. Now, if we place the 

two parts end to end, so that the 

working faces are adjacent, as in 

Fig. 69, we 

note at 

once that 

cuts are 

made from 
the opposite sides. The reason for this will 
be evident if we note how both were laid 
out. In drawing the lines c, d, etc., and the 
hues ??, 0, etc., the head of the gauge was 
always on Face No. 1 and the gauge re- 
mained at the same setting. That is, the 
part cut out of Face No. 1 was measured 
exactly the same as the part left, when the 

. „ , , ■ n F«g- 68c— Testing Chisel Cut with 

piece was cut irom the opposite face. Try square 




Fig. 68b— Cut Pared to Line Centre High 




46 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Reasons 
for leaving 
a long end 
on part 
Kg. 1. 



Now, if WO \nit Part 1 and Part 2 together, as in Fig. 69a, the 
shoulder on Part No. 1 will fit against Face No. 2, and Face No. 1 on 
each piece will he adjacent and come even or flush with each other. If 
the work has been properly done, the parts will fit together closely, 
but one should be able to force them together with the hands. If 
we refer to No. 2, Fig. 61c, page 38, we shall see that in making the 



rncE/iol 



TftOE.VAoX 



r 



I TaceNoS // TaceNoS 



Part No 2 PartNoI 

Fig. 69 — Parts Nos. i and 2 in Original Position 




Fig. 69a — Parts of Lap Joint Put Together, Showing 
Relation of Faces 



Fig. 69b— Lap Joint Parts Put Together, 
Showing Projecting End (B) 



measuring line a — a^ the end of Part 1 was made one-eighth of an inch 
longer than it should be. When put together the end of Part 1 will 
project beyond Part 2, as in Fig. 696. This is a general practice in 
all mills. When opportunity offers, look at doors and window-sash 
as they come from the mill. One reason for leaving the end long is to 
make sure that the end when finished will come even or flush with the 
adjacent face. Another reason is that in chiselling or sawing the face 
(a, Fig. 69) the wood is likely to be more or less split at the end. 



THE LAP JOINT 



47 



Still another is that it is much easier to square the end to the re- 



quired length when it is supported between the shoulders of the other to re- 

'■ move the 

the f'e pro- 

jecting end 
of part 
No. 1. 



piece. To remove 
projecting end, bevel the 
edge (B, Fig. 695) with 
the chisel, as in Fig. 69c, 
then with a small smooth 
plane or block plane held 
at an angle of about 45° 
to the face of the part, 
as in Fig. Q9d, plane the 
end flush with the adjacent face. This will complete the joint. 
Various types and applications of this joint will be found on 
pages 58 and 59. 




Fig. 69c — Bevelling Projecting End with Chisel 




Fig. 69d — Planing Projecting End 
with Block Plane 



SUMMARY 

We have learned the following in Chapter II : 

That the method of stating the problem used in Chapter I could be used only 
for simple problems. 

The necessity of a better method of stating the problem. 

The principles of mechanical drawing and some of the uses of such drawings. 

Laying out and making a Lap Joint. 

Bench Hook — How to use it. 

Back Saw — How to use it. 

Chisel — Some of its uses and how to care for it. 



CHAPTER III 



THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 



Tenon and 
mort isc 
defined. 

Mechani- 
cal state- 
ment of 
of prob- 
lem. 



Combina- 
tion of 
parts in 
mill order. 



Jointing 
the stock. 



The example of this type of joint will be the Through Mortise and 
Tenon (Fig. 70). 

The Tenon is the extension on Part No. 1 and the Mortise is the 
hole into which the Tenon fits (Part No. 2). 

The complete mechanical statement of the problem, that is, the 
mechanical drawing, is given in Fig. 70a. From the mechanical 

drawing we learn that the stock 
called for is Pine or Poplar: 
2 pieces 1^" x If x 5''. 

Inasmuch as these two pieces 
are alike, and when in one piece are 
not too large to handle easily, we 
can save considerable time by 
ordering the stock in one piece and 
working both to thickness and 
width at the same time. Allow- 
ing one-eighth of an inch in both 
width and thickness and one inch 
in length for finishing, the order 
for the stock will be : Poplar or Pine : 1 piece If x 1|'' x 11". To make 
this piece to the required dimensions we have again a review of the 
first problem (pages 1 to 20, inclusive). 

After jointing the above piece, that is, after working it to the 

48 




Fart ho. 2 



Part ho 1 



Fig. 70- 



-Perspective Drawing of Through Mortise 
and Tenon Joint 



THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 49 

required dimensions, it will still be to our advantage to lay out and 
cut the mortise and tenon before cutting the piece in two. 



To Lay Out a Mortise and Tenon Joint 

This is a general problem the same as the last and the dimensions 
may be omitted. It will be 
well at this point to read again 
the use of the laying-out tools 
in the last chapter. 

Draw measuring line a — a^ 
(No. 1, Fig. 705) about three-six- 
teenths of an inch from the end. 
From a—a^ measure tha required 
length of Part No. 1 and draw 
g—f, f — /, i — h, and h — g. For a 
cutting-off line allow one-quarter 
of an inch for sawing and squar- 
ing the ends, and draw the line 
k — /, / — m, m — /, I — k. These 
lines will enable us to exactly 
locate the mortise and tenon. 
Measure from a — ci^ the required 
dimension and draw the shoulder 

line for the tenon c — h, h — e, e — d, d — c (No. 2, Fig. 706). Measure 
from k — I and locate the end lines for the mortise n — o and p — q. 
(No. 2, Fig. 706.) These lines are to be made on Face No. 2 and 
the face opposite, but are not to be drawn beyond the limit of the 
mortise, because they would remain in the material and be visible 
in the finished piece. To locate n^ — o^ on the face opposite No. 2, 
when drawing the line n — o make a small mark (v, No. 2, Fig. 706) 
on the edge of the piece. Place the knife in this cut the same as if it 




Fine orPbiolar 
Scale 2'- 3" 



7oa — Mechanical Drawing of Through Mortise 
and Tenon Joint 



Measuring 
line. 



End lines. 



Shoulder 
line for 
tenon, 



To locate 
end lines 
of mortise. 



50 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



To draw 
side lines 
for mor- 
tise and 
tenon. 



were the end of a line, brino; the square in position for making a Hne 
on Face No. 1, and make a small point at ir; v- may also be used 
as the end of a line to locate n^ — o^\ p- — q^ may be located exactly 
opposite p — q in the same way. 

Set the gauge to the required dimensions and with the head on 



J f 




rio.2 




Mo. 3 



Fig. 7ob— Nos. i, 2, and 3, Fig. 70b, Show Successive Steps in Laying Out Through Mortise and Tenon Joint 



Face No. 1 draw R — s (No. 3, Fig. 706) to the end, s — s' across the end, 
s^ — R^ back to the shoulder line on face opposite No. 2. Without 
changing the sotting of the gauge connect the mortise lines at n^) and 
n" — p^ (No. 3, Fig. 706), add the thickness of the tenon to the setting of 



THE MORTISE AND TEN(3N TYPE OF JOINT 



51 



the gauge as it was used in marking the last Hues, and with the head of 
the gauge on the same face draw t — u, ii—u^, u- — f, the same as we 
did R — s, etc., and join o — q and o" — g^ 

We now have Hues giving the exact boundaries of the mortise and 
tenon. Because of having made the hues R^s, etc., and n— p, etc., with 
one setting of the gauge, and t — u, etc., and q — o, etc., with another 
setting, but from the same face, we know that the thickness of the 
tenon and the width of the mortise are exactly the same. 

Saw out X — X (No. 3), using the back saw to cut with the grain as Removing 
well as across it. No chiselling should be done on the shoulders and but 
very little on the faces of the tenon. The end should be bevelled as in 
Fig. 70c. The bevel allows the tenon to enter the mortise and prevents 
the end from catching in the sides as it is pushed into it. 

The next step is 
the only new op- 
eration — that is, to 
remove the stock 
from the mortise. 
There are two ways 
of removing the 
bulk of the stock. 
It may be bored 
out with a bit or 

it may be chiselled out. In the case in hand, where the wood is 
soft and the piece not large, the chisel is probably the best tool to use. 

To Cut Out a Mortise with a Chisel 











) 















sides or 
teuoii. 



Removing 
stock from 
mortise. 



Fig. 70C — Mortise and Tenon Ready to Cut Apart 



Choose a chisel at least one-sixteenth of an inch smaller than the choice of 
width of the mortise to he cut. Be sure that the chisel is sharp. The 
mallet comes into use here again. The mallet is a round or square- 
shaped hammer made of hard, heavy wood (Fig. 70d), and is used to maiiet. 



52 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Reasons 
for using 
a mallet. 



Start ini; 
the chisel 
cut. 



The end 

rut. 



drive the chisel into the stock. The weight of the mallet imparts 
a great force to the chisel, even with a light blow, while a hard 
blow with a light carpenter's hammer nearly splinters the chisel 
handle and does not sink the chisel deep into the wood. Consequently 

the carpenter's hammer is 
never used for driving a 
chisel. The chisel should 
be started in at the cen- 
tre of the mortise with a 
light cut, as at a, No. 1, 
Fig. 70e. The cut should 
be a little deeper with 
each stroke and brought 
up to about one-six- 
teenth of an inch of the 
end line of the mortise 
with the flat side of the 
chisel toward the line, as 
at h, No. 1, Fig. 70e. 
With the chisel, as at d, No. 2, drive it into the wood. The 
slanting position, as well as the bevel, will advance the chisel 
toward the part already cut. This raises the chip, as at c, No, 2, 





Fig. 7od — Types of Mallets 



-Choel 



a 



' w-77'' 



Nol 







No 2 



K 



' r^ 



nTil:; ! J 



Chisel. 



No. 3 



Fig. 7oe — Nos. i, 2, and 3, Fig. yoe, Show Positions of Chisel in Cutting Mortise 



THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 



53 



and forces considerable material out of the mortise. With the chisel 
still held in the position d, No. 2, take cuts about three-sixteenths of 
an inch apart until within one-sixteenth of an inch from the end line of 
the mortise. Then turn the chisel, as at e, No. 3. The last cut should 
be square with and parallel to the end of the mortise. Split the chip 
through the centre, as in Fig. 70/. Trim the sides of the mortise, as in 

Fig. 70g. This 

trimming will 

allow more free- 
dom for the chisel 

as well as let all 

loose chips fall out 

easily. Do not dig 

or pry out the 

chips, but make 

another series of 

cuts w i t h the 

chisel, held as at 

d, No. 2, Fig. 70<?. 

Split the chips and 

trim the sides of 

the mortise the 

same as in the 

first cut. 

These two se- 
ries of cuts should 
remove, or at least cut, the stock to the centre. Turn the piece in 
the vise and repeat all the above operations on the opposite side. 
When completed these cuts will leave a rough hole through the 
piece. There should be from one-thirty-second to one-sixteenth of 
an inch of stock between the hole and the sides and ends of the mor- 
tise (Fig. 70/i). To remove the remaining stock, j^lace the piece in 




Fig. 7of- 



-Splitting the Chips with the 
Chisel 



Fig. 70g — Trimming Sides of 
Mortise with Chisel 



Splitting 
the chips 
and trim- 
ming sides 
of mortise. 




Chisel from 
both sides 
to the 
centre. 



54 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Finishing 
the mor- 
tise. 



Chisel to 
the centre 
from e.ach 
side. 



Get the 
best litrlit 
possible. 



Fitting till- 
mortise 
and tenon. 



the vise and hold the chisel as in Fig. 70l Bevel to the lines on both 
sides. Pare the ends to the centre with a chisel at least one-sixteenth 
of an inch smaller than the width of the mortise, and extend the 

I bevel in the end from each side to the centre (Fig. 70j). 
The piece will then be as in Fig. 70/v. Pare the ends 
and sides until they are a true ]:)lane and the lines have 
been split on both sides. The chisel cut should always 
be to the centre from each side. If the cut is made 
through from one side to the other, the wood will 
be split on the side toward which 
the chisel is cutting, for there will 
be no support to the fibres on that 
side. To test the surface the edge 
of the chisel may be used as a 
Rough-Cut straight-edge the same as the trv 

Mortise o o . 

square is used in making a working 
face. (See Fig. 70Z.) Care should be taken to 
make all corners square. 
The manner of hold- 
ing the piece in the vise 
while chiselling depends 
so much on the position 

of the light that no general rule can be given, 
except to say that the lines on the piece and 
the cutting edge of the chisel must be seen at all 
times. A little experience will lead to the best 
method under the existing conditions. 

When the mortise is finished, cut the two pieces 

iipiu't, square the ends, and saw to the required 

length. Push the tenon into the mortise. It 

should require a light blow with the hammer to 

L?n7s^o7ase° ^"' forcc thc tcuou thc last quarter of an inch. Face 





Fig. 7oi — Bevelling to Side Lines of 
Mortise 



THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 55 



No. 1 on each piece should be adjacent and the shoulders of the pianing 
tenon should fit against Face No. 2 of the mortise piece. The end tenon. 
of the tenon will extend three-sixteenths of an inch beyond the face of 

the mortise piece, because 

all measurements have 

been made from measur- 
ing line a — a" No. 1, 

(Fig. 70b, page 50), which 

is three-sixteenths of an 

inch from the end. Plane 

this extending end flush 

with the face, as was done 

with the lap joint, page 

47, Figs. 69c and Q9d, and 

the joint is finished. 
As stated on page 

51, there are two ways 

of removing the bulk of the stock of the mortise — chisel 
ling it out, as given above, and boring it out with an auger bit. 





Fig. 7ok- Sides 
and Ends of 
Mortise Pared 
to Lines with 
Centre High 



Fig. 7ol — Chisel Used as Straight-Edge to 
Test Side of Mortise 



To Remove the Bulk of the Stock in a Mortise with an Auger Bit 

This operation brings into use two new tools — the auger 
bit and the brace. These are tools for making a round hole 
in wood. The bits range in size, by sixteenths, from one- 
quarter of an inch to one inch, with special bits for larger 
holes. The size of the bit is always stamped on the stem 
or shank, as 4, 5, 6, etc., meaning j\, ^%, ^%, etc. The 
brace is a handle by means of which bits of all sizes are 
forced into the wood. More will be said about bits and 
braces in the chapter on tools. 

To remove the required stock, select a bit about ono- 

1 f •!! •!• -iiri ^^- 7' — Stock 

sixteenth ot an mch less m diameter than the width oi the Rough cut 

from Mortise 

mortise to be cut, and bore holes as close together as pos- with Auger 




The size 
of an 
auger bit. 



Selection 
of bit. 



56 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Borin? 

throuKli 
the stock. 



squarin? slblc (Fig. 71). To bc sure that the bit will 2:0 straidit through the 

the bit. \ o / & & o 

piece and come out between the lines on the opposite side, place the 

try square on the piece, as in Fig. 71a, 
and hold the bit parallel to the blade of 
the square. Line the bit frcnn the side 
also. The bit should not be forced en- 
tirely through the piece from one side or 
it will split the wood as it comes through. 
When the point or spur comes through 
turn the piece over and finish the hole 
from the opposite side. Or if a block 
is placed back of a piece, as in Fig. 716, 
it will take the pressure and prevent 
splitting. When the holes are drilled the 
remaining portion of the stock is removed 
the same as when roughed out with a chisel. 
The cutting out of the mortise is all 
that is really new in this chapter. The 
chief object of the chapter is to show the 
necessity for carefully planning and lay- 
ing out a piece before the cutting tools 
are used, and incidentally to emphasize 



Object of 
work. 




Fig. 71a— Squaring Auger Bit with 
Try Square 



again the correct choice of tools for a given piece of work. 




Fig. 71b— Boring into Block 



CHAPTER IV 

JOINTS AND OTHER MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 

The mechanical elements given in the previous chapters are the Mechani- 
basis of all mechanical work. Stated briefly again, these elements ments. 
are: (1) Knowledge of the problem with ability to state it accurately. 
(2) Knowledge of available material. (3) Skill in selecting and using 
the available tools. If we have followed carefully the steps given 
in the last three chapters and have done enough of the work to have 
in mind the method of procedure, it will not be difficult to use the 
knowledge we have gained in the solution of other mechanical prob- Adjust- 

1 1 c 1 • • merit nec- 

lems, even though a great deal of adjustment is necessary to meet essary. 
the requirements of the problem under consideration. 

The object of the following chapter is not to give a complete course object of 

chapter. 

in the various methods of joining wood, but to give briefly some of the 
most common forms of wood construction, including a few of the 
materials other than wood that are used in wood-work. A few tables 
and general facts are given which are intended to show the usual 
method of purchasing materials. 

The joints given on pages 58, 59 and 60 are drawn both in the 
perspective, or picture, and in the mechanical drawing. On pages 60 
and 62 the joints are drawn only in the perspective, while on pages 
64 and 65 only the mechanical drawings are used. The object of 
using both methods of drawing is to give the beginner power men- 
tally to see the mechanical drawing from the object or picture, the 
necessary faculty for producing the mechanical drawing, and to see the 

57 



58 



MAXl'AL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Half hi]) 
tee joint. 



End lap 
joint. 



Middle lap 
joint. 



perspective from the mechanical drawing, a very useful faculty in 
working from the mechanical drawing to produce the required object. 

On pages 58 and 59 are given a number of modifications of the 
lap joint. Figs. 72 and 72a are the perspective and mechanical draw- 
ings respectively of the Half Lap Tee Joint considered on pages 35 to 
37, inclusive. This joint is used for joining framework on large tim- 
bers and on drawer supports, stays, etc., in cabinet work. Figs. 73 
and 73a, the End Lap Joint, may be used in corner construction, as 
is shown in the figure; or it may be used in joining pieces end to end 
as in 74. When made long, as in 74a, it is used as a timber splice. 
For this latter purpose the joint is made in many different ways. By 
referring to the subject, ''Building," in any good encyclopaedia, a 
number of such splice joints will be found. 

The Middle Lap Joint, Figs. 75 and 75a, is used in framing where 
one piece crosses the other and the thickness of the joint is not more 
than the thickness of one of the pieces of which it is made. 




Fig. 72 —Perspective Drawing of 
Half Lap Tee Joint 



Fig. 73 



Perspective Drawing of End 
Lap Joint 



Fig. 74 — Perspective Drawing 
of Splice Joint 



Fig. 72a — Mechanical Drawing of 
Half Lap Tee Joint 



Fig. 



73a — Mechanical Drawing of 
End Lap Joint 



Fig. 74a — Mechanical Drawing 
of Splice Joint 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



59 





Fig- 75 — Middle Lap Joint Fig. 76 — Half Dove-Tail Joint Fig. 77 — Dove-Tail Joint 









- 


/ i 


- \ / i 



Fig. 75a — Mechanical Drawing of Fig. 76a — Mechanical Drawing of Fig. 77a— Mechanical Drawing of 

Middle Lap Joint Half Dove-Tail Joint Dove-Tail Joint 





Fig. 78 — Brace or Angle Joint 



Fig. 78a — Mechanical Drawing of Brace or Angle Joint 



Fia;s. 76 and 76a, Fip;s. 77 and 77a are forms of the Dove-Tail Dove-taii 

, . . joint 

Joint. They are also modifications of the Lap Joint and are made to 
withstand a tension or pull as well as a compression or push. Figs. 
78 and 78a represent the Brace Joint. They are used for bracino; or Brace 
irammg at an angle. 

A number of the mortise and tenon type of joints are given on 
page 60. 

Figs. 79 and 79a are the Through Mortise and Tenon Joint, the Mortise 
construction of which was given in detail on pages 46 to 56, inclusive, foints? 



60 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Fig. 79 — Through Mortise and 
Tenon Joint 



Fig. 80 — Slip Mortise and Tenon 
Joint 



Fig. 81 



-Blind Mortise and Tenon 
Joint 



TT 



Fig. 79a — Mechanical Drawing of 
Through Mortise and Tenon Joint 



Fig. 80a — Mechanical Drawing of 
Slip Mortise and Tenon Joint 



Fig. 8ia — Mechanical Drawing of 
Blind Mortise and Tenon Joint 




Fig. 82 



-Slip Mortise and Tenon 
Joint 



Fig. 82a Mechanical Drawing of 
Slip Mortise and Tenon Joint 




Fig. 83— Brace Joint 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 61 

This form of joint is used in framing, where the end of the tenon will 
not make an unsightly scar on a finished surface. 

The Slip Mortise and Tenon Joint (Figs. 80 and 80a) is used on siipmor- 

tise and 

window-screen frames, wmdow-sash, door frames, etc., where the tenon. 

edges are not visible. The Blind Mortise and Tenon Joint (Figs. 81 BUnd mor- 

. ^ I'll • 1 ^^^^ ^'^'^ 

and 81a) is made m many forms and is used more than any single tenon. 

form of joint yet considered. As shown in the cut,, this joint is used 

for end framing. If made, as in Fig. 79, with the tenon blind, that is, 

entirely concealed within the cross-piece, it is used in place of the 

Through Mortise and Tenon. The Blind Joint is used on chairs, 

tables, cabinets, desks, and, in fact, on nearly every form of cabinet 

work. Figs. 82 and 82a show a form of the Slip Joint (Fig. 80), the 

use of which is suggested by the drawing. Fig. 83 is a Brace Joint, joint. 

Butt Joints 

Joining at right angle. Fig. 84 is the Plain Butt Joint used in rough Rane butt 
work and is held by nails or screws. Fig. 85 is a Rabbeted Joint, used 
a great deal in making drawer corners where it is not desirable to have Rabbeted 

. ... . joint. 

the end grain of the side piece show. Fig. 86 is a modified form of Fig. 
85. It is used for the same purpose as Fig. 85 and also for box cor- 
ners. Fig. 87 is a Housed Joint, used where Figs. 85 or 86 would not Housed 

.7 . joint. 

give the required strength and where the projecting ends are not objec- 
tionable—for example, watering troughs — and if bolted, as shown at A, 
Fig. 87, it is used on large vats and tanks. Fig. 88 is a matched Matched 

" ' "^ ^ _ " _ corner. 

corner, used mostly for box corners. Fig. 89 is the Dove-Tail, used 

for box corners, drawer corners, etc., where considerable strength is Dove-tau. 

required. It is a difficult joint to make by hand. 

Miter Joints 

The Miter Joint is used where it is not desirable to have the end 
grain show at all. It is not a strong joint, and the only differences in 
the forms of it are made in order to get a better fastening. 



62 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Plain 
miter 
joint. 



Feather 
or spline. 



Fig. 90, the Plain Miter Joint, is held together by nails and glue, 
and is used mostly for small picture-frame woi-k. Figs. 91 and 92 
show other methods for fastening the miter joints. A, Fig. 91, is a 
strip of wood set in grooves between the two pieces. This inserted 
})iece is called a feather or a spline, and the grain should be placed in the 
direction of the arrow to prevent splitting. B, Fig. 92, is merely a 






Fig. 84— Plain Butt Joint 



Fig. 85— Rabbeted Joint 



Fig 86— Gain Joint 






Fig. 87— Housed Joint 



Fig. 88— Matched Joint 



Fig. 89— Box Dove-Tail 
Joint 






Fig. 90 — Plain Miter 
Joint 



Fig. 91— Miter Joint Fast- 
ened with Spline 



Fig. 92 —Miter Joint with 
Mortise and Tenon 



[ATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



63 





Fig. 94— Butt Dowel Joint 



Fig. 93 — Miter Joints Used as 
Box Corners 




Fig. 95— Edge Dowel Joint 



tenon. A, Fio;. 93, shows the miter used as a box corner with the Miter 

^ joint for 

spHne placed in a different position ; B shows a common method of box cor- 
reinforcing a miter joint in a box or drawer corner. 



Dowel Joints 

Figs. 94 and 95 are examples of the Dowel Joint. The round pin 
used as a fastening device is called a dowel. Fig. 94 is not a strong 
joint and is used onh^ on small or cheap work. Fig. 95 is a common 
method of uniting two pieces edge to edge or in the direction of the 
width. Such a joint is usually set in glue, and if well made it is a 
good joint. 

Method of Uniting Boards in the Direction of Their Width 

Fig. 96 is an Edge Butt Joint. If well glued in softwood this makes Edge butt 
a good, strong joint, but if the pieces are long it will be difficult to keep 
them in line without the use of some such device as that shown in 



64 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Rabbeted Figs. 98 aiicl 99, or the Dowel Joint, Fig. 95. Fig. 97 is the Ral^beted 

edge joint, t • i 

Joint. The comer cut (A) is called the rabbet. This joint is usually 
set in glue and is used on backs of desks, bookcases, etc. Fig. 98, the 
Feather or Spline Joint, is not much used, but may be used in place of 
the joint shown in Fig. 97 or 99. Fig. 99 is the Matched Joint, 
and is used more than all of the other forms of the same type. 
It is used for flooring, wainscoting, table tops, side pieces for 
cabinets, etc., and in fact in all places where it is necessary to 
unite edges. 



Spline 
joint. 



Matched 
joint. 







^ 






s 




-i>*» > 


M 





i 
1 












Fig. 96— Edge Butt 
Joint 



Fig. 97— Rabbeted 
Joint 




Fig. 98— Feather or 
Spline Joint 



Fig. 99 —Matched 
Joint 



Side 
cleats. 



Cleating 

Strips of wood used as A, Figs. 100, 101, and 102, page 65, are 
called cleats. As used in Figs. 100 and 101, the cleats are to prevent 
warping and to reinforce the butt joints between the boards. They 
are fastened with nails or screws, as in Fig. 100. Fig. 101, 
Endcieat.s. End Clcatlng, is not so strong as is Fig. 100, but the cleats 
are out of the way and do not increase the thickness of the 
piece. This form of cleating is used on drawing-boards, cake 
boards, etc. Fig. 102, Cabinet Cleating, shows a method of fast- 
ening the top on a cabinet, holding the end of a shelf, and for drawer 
supports, etc. 

On small work, where cleats, as shown in Fig. 102, would look out 
of place, a good substitute for the cleat is the screw and screw-eye, 



Cabinet 
cleating, 



Screw-eye 
substitute 
for cleat. 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



65 





\1 


V « • '" Y 


. . . . |, 


A ■> ■^ - -\ 








® ® ® 
A 
® ® © 


1 1 



Fig. 100 — Side Cleating 



Fig. loi — End Cleating 



P i 



■),. '_ ii. 



Fig. I02 — Cabinet Cleating 



.tis) 



Fig. 103 — Screw and Screw Eye 
Substituted for Cleating 



ClK-=^ 



Fig. 104 — Screw and Screw Eye 
Substituted for Cleating 




Fig. 105 — Screw and Screw 
Eye 



Fig. 105, used as is shown in Figs. 103 and 104. If used with a 
Housed Joint (Fig. 87, page 62) the screw-eye in place of the cleat 
makes a good, strong joint. 



Miscellaneous Joints 

Fig. 106, is a form of corner joint which can be used in large Las screw 
boxes. The screws used are of the lag screw type, Fig. 122, page 74. corne°r!^ 
Fig. 107 is a dowel joint reinforced with a carriage bolt (B). This is a Rein- 

• • forced 

good joint for a portable bench. By removing the nut on the bolt dowei 
the joint may be taken apart easily. 

Fig. 108 is a form of the Mortise and Tenon Joint and is also easily Keyed 
taken apart. The joint is a good one for small furniture that is to be 
moved often. A is called the key, and the joint is called the Keyed 
Joint. 



66 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



In the first part of this chapter brief mention was made of devices 
other than joints for holding pieces of wood together. Joints alone 
may be sufhcient in simple pieces where there is no strain upon them, 




>. . 


^ 

^ 




:\ 




".'.c.'- 1 


7 





Fig. io6— Lag-Bolt Joint for Large Box Corners 



Fig. 107 — Reinforced Dowel Joint 



Most cotii- 
moii inetli- 
oris of 
fastening 
wood. 



but if we wish i(^ build large or strong articles, merely placing the 
joined parts togethei- will not give the required strength. It -will be 
necessary, therefore, to hold the parts in place 
by some other means. In some cases these other 
forms of fastenings will give sufficient strength 
without the joint at all. The most common 
methods of fastening pieces of wood together are 
hy means of nails, screws, and glue, which we 
will now consider. 

Nails 



Cut nails. 



Ak_ 




Fig. io8 — Keyed Joint 



At one time all nails were made by hand by 
the blacksmith. This was a slow process and 
gave way to the machine-cut nails, as shown in A and /i, Fig. 109. 
B is the common nail, with a large head, foi- use on large, rough work, 
while A, as is seen in the cut, has a much sniall(*r head, one that will 



MATERLVLS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



67 



not leave a large scar. For this reason .4 is called the finishing cut tin- 
nail and is used for delicate finishing work. These nails are wedge nans. 
shaped, and care must 1)C taken in driving them or they will split the 
wood. Cut nails are now practically out of the market, ^^'e shall, 
therefore, not consider them further, but shall consider the wire nail 
with which we are all familiar. 

The wire nail is made by upsetting a head on the end of a piece of wirenaiis. 
steel wire. It is much better than the old cut nail in that it is round 



B 



B 



T~V 



u 




Fig. 109— Cut Nails 



Fig. no — Types of Wire Nails 



and will not split the wood, and by being the same size through- 
out the entire length it holds into the wood much better. Wire nails 
are made in very many sizes and shapes to meet a great number of size of 
different conditions. The common or standard nail {E, Fig. 110) 
is made in a number of sizes, a table of which follows. In des- 
ignating the size of standard nails the word ''penny" preceded by a order for 

" " . . nails. 

number is used as, 2 penny, 3 penny, 4 penny, etc. In writmg an 
order the word penny is abbreviated by the letter ''d," and is 



68 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



written 2d, 3d, 4d, etc., but read 2 penny, 3 penny, 4 penny, etc. 
The following is a table of sizes and lengths of the standard wire nails: 



TABLE OF NAIL SIZES AND LENGTHS 



Size 


2d 


3d 




4d 




^^(] 


6d 


7d 


8d 


9d 


lOd 


12d 














Length in inches 


1 


U 


H 


If 


2 


2i 


2* 


2| 


3 


3i 




Size 


* IGd 


20d 


30d 


40d 


50d 


60d 






Length in inches 


3^ 


4 


4* 


5 


5i 


6 



Wire fin- 
ishing 
nails. 



Size of 
brads and 
how to 
order 
them. 



Escutch- 
eon pins. 



Clout and 

trunk 

nails. 



D, Fig. 110, is a wire finishing nail with a small head and a slim 
body, which corresponds to the cut finishing nail. A, Fig. 109. C, 
Fig. 110, is a brad. The brad has a head made somewhat different 
from the head of the finishing nail and is smaller in diameter. Brads 
range in length from f' to 2^', and the diameter is given by the number 
of the wire from which they are made. The larger the number the 
smaller the brad. Brads are used on very small, delicate work. An 
order for brads is written as follows: -f No. 19, f No. 20, or 2^'' No. 
12, etc. B, Fig. 110, is a special box nail. A is an escutcheon pin, 
usually made of brass, and is used for putting on small hinges, catches, 
locks, curtain hangers, etc. The sizes of escutcheon pins range in 
length and diameter according to the use made of them. F is a 
standard nail with barbs on it to make it hold better. The clout nail 
(B, Fig. Ill) is made of soft iron, so that it can be clinched without 
breaking, as in C, Fig. 111. A, Fig. Ill, is a trunk nail. It is made 
the same as the clout nail, with the exception that it has a round 
instead of a flat head. The clout nail is usually galvanized to prevent 
rust, and ranges in length from ^" to V by a difference of ^" to the size, 
and may be had longer than 1". 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



69 



Tacks 



y 



d 



While tacks are of.no value in fastening pieces of wood, they are 
indispensable in upholstering work „ r r 

of all kinds. A table of sizes and 
lengths is given below. The size of 
tacks is given by the word ounce, 
preceded by a number, as 1 ounce, 
2 ounces, 3 ounces, etc. The word 
"ounce" has the usual abbreviation 
(oz.). Tacks may be bought loose by 
the pound or in small boxes. 

There are so many sizes and 
special makes of nails and tacks that 
we should consult a dealers' catalogue 



Size of 
tacks. 




Fig. Ill— Trunk and Clout Nails 





TABLE 


OF 


STANDARD 


SIZES OF CUT TACKS 














Length in inches 


3 

1 li 


3| 

1 is 


4 
1 6 


n 
i B 


1 (1 


1 B 


1% 


IB 


u 


1 1 
i 6 


t 2 

1 r, 


1^ 

1 B 


n 


15 
1 B 


IB 
1 B 


IS 






Size in ounces 


1 


^ 


2 


2i 


3 


4 


6 


8 10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


"^4 











in order to learn what will best meet the special recjuirements when 
doing a piece of work out of the ordinary. There are no general 
rules governing the selection of nails; they must be selected accord- 
ing to the requirements of the work in hand. 

Hammers 



There are many sizes and shapes of hammers. The common claw 
hammer (Fig. 112) is the one most used by the wood-worker. Ham- 
mers are catalogued as follows: 

Sizes of hammers: Nos. 1, 1^, 2, 3. 



Size of 
hammer. 



70 



MANUAL TRAININC; FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Bell-faco 
and i)laiK'- 
face ham- 
mers. 



Driving a 
naii. 



Witli- 
(Iraw hit; 
u nail. 




Fig. 112 — Types of Hammers 



Weights, without handle: No. 1, 1 lb. 4 oz.; No. U, 1 lb.; No. 2, 
13 oz.; No. 3, 7 oz. 

Hammer No. 2 — 13 oz. — is a ccjiiveiiient size for general use. Fig. 
112, a, is a plane-face hammer and h is a bell face. Tl]£ bell-face 

hammer usually has a better 
balance, or as the mechanic 
would say, it is hung better 
than the plane face. 

The hole in which the 
handle is placed is called the Eye 
of the hammer. Hannners hav- 
ing the eye extended, as those 
in Fig. 112, are called adze-eye 
hammers. Hammers made with 
the adze-eye hokl the handU^ 
better than does the hammer made with- 
out it. The first cost of the adze-eye ham- 
mer is more, but the handle holds so much 
better that they are the most economical. 
When driving a nail the hammer should 
be held by the end of the handle and the 
arm should swing from the shoulder instead 
of from the elbow. The proper use of the 
hammer is an art which is learned only l)y 
experience. 

To withdraw a nail it should be pulled 
in a straight line. A nail properly with- 
drawn will not be Ixnit. To withdraw a 
nail, place a block under the head of the 
hammer, as in Fig. 1 1 3. The block will keej) 
the pull straight and will prevent the ham- 
mer from marring the surface of the work. Pig 113 -withdrawing waii 




MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



71 



Hammer marks on the surface of the work should be avoided. Naii set. 
The oval face of the hammer will set the nail level with the surface 
of the wood, but if it is desired to set the head below the sm'face, the 
nail set (Fig. 114) should be used. The point of the nail 
set is cupped and has sharp edges, as is shown in the 
sectional view (A, Fig. 114). To sink the head of the nail 
below the surface or, as is u;sually said, to set the nail, 





Fig. 114— Nail Set 



Fig 115 — Toe Nailing 

the nail set is placed on the head and struck a 
sharp blow with the hammer. The sharp edge 
of the nail-set point will prevent it from slipping 
off the head of the nail. When a nail is driven 
obliquely, as in Fig. 115, it is said to be toed. 
Such nailing is spoken of as toe nailing. 



Toe nail- 
ing. 



Standard Wood Screws 

Wood screws are of two general types, flat head and round fuu ami 
head. (Fig, 116.) They are made of brass and steel. To prevent rust- head' 
ing and to improve their appearance, steel screws are blued, galvanized, 
or copper plated. Both steel and brass screws are nickel plated. Brass Finish of 
will not rust and is plated only to improve its appearance. Steel screws 
are blued by heating highly polished screws until they turn blue. 
The heating covers the screw wit*h a coating of iron oxide. Galvaniz- 
ing is merely zinc plating. 

The sizes of screws are designated by the length in inches and 



72 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Order for 
screws. 



a number which refers to the diameter. Each length of screw 
is made in several different diameters, as is shown by the table 
of standard screws given below. 

Screws are usually sold in boxes contain- 
ing one gross, but may be bought in bulk 
by the pound, or in small quantities by the 
dozen. From the table of standard sizes, 
given below, and from the facts mentioned 
above, it is evident that an order for 
screws must give the following information: 
Quantity wanted. 
Length. 

Number (diameter of screw). 
Type (round or flat-head). 
Finish (bright, blued, galvanized, copper- 
Fig. ii6-Types of Wood Screws P^'^ted Or uickel-plated). 

TABLE OF STANDARD SCREW SIZES AND LENGTHS 





LENGTH 


1// 
4 


r 


i" 


r 


I" 


¥' 


1" 


U" 


H" 


1|" 


2" 


2i" 


2i" 


2|" 


3" 


3i" 


4" 


4i" 


5" 


6" 


NUMBER 




1 

2 










































2 


2 








































3 


3 


3 






































4 


4 


4 


4 




































5 


5 


5 


5 




































6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


































7 


7 
8 
9 


7 
8 
9 


7 
8 
9 


7 
8 
9 


7 
8 
9 


8 
9 


9 
































10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 










1 




















11 


11 


11 


11 


11 


11 


11 


11 




























12 


12 


12 
13 
14 


12 
13 
14 
15 

IG 


12 
13 
14 
15 
If) 
17 
18 


12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
20 


12 
13 
14 
15 
If) 
17 
18 
20 


12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
20 


14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
20 


IG 

18 
20 


15 
16 
17 
18 
20 


18 
20 
22 


16 

18 
20 


20 


22 


30 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



73 



An order for screws is written as follows: 5 gross — |'' — number 
10 — Flat-Head, Blued Steel screws. The order is usually abbreviated 
as follows: 

5 gr.— J"— No. 10— F. H. Blued Steel screws. 

25 boxes— ly'— No. 12— R. H. Gal. Steel screws. 

2 doz. — 1^' — No. 8 — F. H. Brass screws, etc., etc. 
Screws are used for fastening pieces of wood together usually use of 

'^ >- o -^ screws. 

where more strength and better work are wanted than can be obtained 






Fig 117— Fastening with 
Screw 



Fig. 118 — Countersunk 
Screw Head 



Fig. 119 — Rose 
Countersink 



by the use of nails, and for fastening locks, hinges, catches, etc. 
As is the case in all construction, the problem in hand must deter- 
mine the screws to use. 

If two pieces are to be fastened, as in Fig. 117, or in any other way, Fastening 

... T-iiiiii i^y means 

the hole A m the piece correspondmg to B should be large enough of screws. 



74 



MANUAL THATXINd VOM COMMON SCHOOLS 



Counter- 
sinkinff 
the flat- 
head 
screw. 



Counter- 
sink. 



■ /Q 



l() allow (lie screw to pass (lirough easily, though not loosely. If the 
screw is screwed into the \)\vrv R it will wedge itself into that piece 
and will not ch-aw I) up to B. \( the wood is hard, or likely to spht, 

a small hole, as C, piece D, 
should be drilled, into which the 
screw may be screwed. 

The head of a flat-head screw 
is always set into the wood, as in 
Fig. 118. This is called counter- 
sinking the screw head. A tool 
called the countersink (Fig. 119) 
is used to bore out the place for 
the head of the screw. There 
are several types of countersinks, Init the one given in Fig. 119, the 
Rose countersink, is the one in most general use. The counter- 
sink is held in a brace and is turned the same as an auger bit when 




Fig. 120— Head of Round-Head Screw. Stands 
Above the Surface 




d 





Fig. 121 — A, Correct; B, Incorrect Screw-Driver 
Point 



Fig. 122— Lag Bolt or 
Screw 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 75 

drilling a hole. The head of the round-head screw is left above the 
surface of the wood, as in Fig. 120. 

The Screw-Driver, the tool used for driving, that is, screwing the screw- 

.- . . driver. 

screw into the wood, is, like all other tools, made in a great variety 
of special shapes and sizes. The most essential featvu'e of a screw- 
driver is that the end of the blade fit the slot in the screw to be suape 

of screw- 
driven, as in .1, Fig. 121, and never as in B. If a screw-driver driver 

, . ' '^ ' _ point. 

slips out of the screw slot and marks the head of the screw, the point 
is probably not formed correctly. 

One other type of screw, the lag screw (Fig. 122), is of much use to Lag screw. 
the bench worker. This screw ranges in sizes from 1^'' to 12'' in length, 
and from ^\" to f' in diameter, with special sizes to order. As is 
shown in the cut, it has a square head and is driven with a wrench. 
The lag screw is used where great strength is needed. 

Glue and Gluing 

Most commercial glues are of two kinds — animal glue and fish glue. Animai 
Animal glue is obtained from bones, hoofs, horns, and scraps of hides — giue. 
the refuse of the large slaughter-houses and tanneries. Fish glue is 
taken from the scales, spawn, and intestines of fish — the refuse of the 
large fisheries. Both kinds of glue are placed on the market in the 
form of hard, brittle bars and cakes broken to small dimensions and 
packed loose in boxes and barrels. 

To Prepare Glue for Use 

Both animal and fish glues are prepared for use in the same wa}^ 
Place the required amount of hard glue in the inner pot of a double 
boiler — the regular commercial glue-pots are best for this purpose — 
pour over the glue a small amount of cold water and allow it to soak 
until soft. Heat by placing the pot in the hot-water jacket of the 



76 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

glue-pot. The dish containing the glue should never be placed directly 
over the fire, for fear of burning, nor should the glue be kept in hot 
water for a long time. Continued heating will decompose the gelatine 
and render the glue valueless. When the glue is thoroughly dissolved, 
enough water should be added to make it to the consistency of thin 
syrup. Glues prepared in this way should always be used hot, for as 
soon as they commence to cool they begin to set; that is, they 
commence to get hard. 

Directions for Gluing 

All i)arts to be glued must be fitted and ready for placing in the 

final position. Each part should be marked so that it may be put into 

Holding position ouickly. All clamps and holdinq devices should be adjusted and 

devices '■ . . . 

for gluing, ready fo)' placing in position. When all is ready, glue should be applied 
in a thin coating over all the surfaces that are to be joined. When 
the glue is on the parts, place them together quickly, put the 
clamps or other holding devices into place, and draw them up 
until all the surplus glue is squeezed out of the joints. The 
clamps must be left in position until the glue is thoroughly hard. 
This will require several hours, varying according to the size of the 
pieces glued. 

Liquid Glues 

There are a numl)er of glues on the market in a liquid form, which 
are prepared ready for use. If but a small amount of gluing is to be 
done, the liquid is more convenient than the hot glue, and its use is 
recommended. Tlic liquid glues are, however, more expensive, require 
a longer time to set, and are more affected by excessive moisture than 
are the hot glues. 



MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 



77 



Sizing with Glue 

When gluing end gi'ain with either kind of ghie, a thin coat should 
be applied and allowed to soak into the wood and harden before the 
final gluing is attempted. If the glue is applied and the joint put to- 
gether at once the glue will draw back into the pores of the wood 
and will be of no service in the joint. This dressing with thin glue is 
called sizing. 

Glue joints will not stand excessive heat or moisture and are Effect of 
likely to give way under a heavy blow, but if reinforced with screws moisture 
or other fastening devices the glue adds materially to the strength of a 
joint and is indispensable in good cabinet work. 

Tools Used in Gluing 

Fig. 123 shows the appliances that make up the ordinary gluing Means of 

n r^i • heating 

outnt. ulue-pots are heated by any convenient means — on a stove, giue. 




Fig. 123— Gluing Outfit. Photograph Showing Glue-Pot, Glue Brush, and Clamps 



78 



.ALVNUAL TUAINlNd FOR CXhMMON SCHOOLS 



Bruslifs 
for glue. 



Hand and 
bar clamp. 



over a ga8 flanu^, by steam, etc. If a larf>;e amount of gluing is to be 
(lone, a permanent heating arrangement should be provided. Speeial 
brushes are made for use in ghie. The bristles must be very securely 
fastened in order to stand the heat and uioisture. Round-point 
brushes with bristles fastened with wire are good. On small work a 
splinter of wood is often a very convenient glue brush. 

Clamps are of two general types, the hand clamp and the bar 
clamp. The wood hand clamp is for small work, and ranges in size 
according to tlie following ta})le: 



Length of jaw iii inches 


7 


8h 


10 


\2 


U 


1(1 


IS 


20 


Opens in inches . 


4 


-ij 


Gi 


7 


7^ 


9^ 


10 


m 



Bar clamps are for large work and range in size up to five feet, 
with special arrangements for larger sizes. A dealers' catalogue will 
give more detailed information and should always be consulted when 
buying supplies (jf any kind. 



CHAPTER V 

TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 

In the first three chapters we have learned considerable about 
tools and the reasons for choosing certain types for doing particular 
things. The object of this chapter is to give additional facts about 
tools, and to group the knowledge that we have gained, so that we can 
enlarge the field of our work. 

Measuring and Laying-Out Tools 

Measuring and laying-out tools are so closely related that a number 
of them are used for both purposes, and for that reason the two sub- 
jects will be considered under one heading. 

Measuring in its various forms is as old as trade or barter. Linear Historical 
measure, the kind with which we are now concerned, has been based 
on many different objects, and even at the present time there are 
several standards in use in the various countries. 

Some of the first objects used as a basis for measurements were the 
parts of the human body. When Noah was commanded to build the 
Ark he was told to make it three hundred cubits long, fifty cubits 
wide, and thirty cubits high. A cubit was the length of the forearm 
from the elbow to the end of the middle finger. At other times the 
nail, the hand, and the finger were used, and even at the present time 
we have the foot as a name at least coming to us from those remote 
times. When such standards were in use one wonders whose arm was 
used as a basis for measuring, the arm of the one who was buying or of 
the one who was selling. 

79 



note. 



80 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



According to the new ''Intermitioniil Encyclo])a3dia/' the following 
law was in force" in Oerniany in the sixteenth century: 

"To find the jeiirrth of a food in tlic right and lawfnl wav, and according to 
scientific, usage, you shall do as follows : Stand at the church on vSunday and bid 
sixteen men to stop, tall and small ones as they happen to pass out when the 
service is finished; then make them put their left feet one behind the other, and 
the length obtained shall be a right and lawful rood to measure and to survey the 
land with and the sixteenth part of it shall be a right and lawful foot." 

As trade grew more definite standards were required, and gradually 
such standards were fixed by law. In 1814 the United States Govern- 
ment had a standard scale made in England and brought to Washington 
to be used as a copy from which other scales could be made. This was 
Troughton called the Troughton scale because a man by the name of Troughton 
made it. It was not until 1856, however, that all the States were pro- 
vided with standard weights and measures. 

A very interesting history of the weights and measures of the 
United States is given in the "Report of the United States Coast and 
Geodetic Survey for 1890," Appendix 18, pp. 736-8, and for a general 
history of weights and measures see ''The Evolution of Weights and 
Measm'es and the Metric System," by William Hallock, published by 
The Macmillan Company, New York. 

For many years lumber has been sold by the board foot. Now a 
board foot of lumber is one inch thick and a. foot square. Consequently 
the standard of measure for all wood-work is the foot. The form of 
measure most used by the wood-worker is the two-foot rule, which for 
convenience in carrying has been made to fold together. Rules are 
designated as twofold, fourfold, sixfold, etc., according to the num- 
ber of parts of which they are made, and are spoken of as six-inch, one- 
foot, two-foot rules, etc., according to their length. Wooden rules are 
usually graduated, that is, marked off into sixteenths, eighths, quarters, 
halves, and inches. The best wooden rules are l)ound on the edges 
with brass to prevent wearing. Nos. 1 and 2, Fig. 124, show the two 



scale. 



Historical 
references. 



Rulers. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 81 

and four fold rule, respectively. If made of wood, the measuring tool 

is usually called a rule, if made of steel it is called a scale. Steel scales steei 

are used for accurate work. The blades of both the try square 




Fig. 124 — Types of Rulers 



and the framing square are graduated and serve as the steel 
scales generally used by the bench worker. The correct way of 
using the rule or scale for locating a measurement is given on page ^ ^ea^ifi 
21, Figs. 39 and 39a. 



measure- 
ment. 



Laying-Out Tools 

The gauge, the knife, and the pencil are the tools most used for 
marking out measurements. 

Gauge. — The parts of the gauge are given on page 18, Fig. 32. andfts"^*' 
For the correct way of using and adjusting the gauge, see pages 18 and "®^- 
19, Figs. 33 to 37 inclusive. The gauge is used only for making 
lines with the grain parallel to a marked surface. 

Knife. — The correct way of using and sharpening a knife for The knife 

,.,... -r^. . ajid its 

makmg Imes is given on page 21, Figs. 39 to 39e, inclusive. See also use. 
''Squaring Around a Piece," pages 22 and 23, Figs. 39/ to 39^, 
inclusive. 

A medium-size pocket-knife is good for making lines, but it is 
better to have a special knife that may be used exclusively for that 



82 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



The pencil 
as a layiiiK 
out tool. 




Fig. 125— Sloyd Knife 



purpose, such as the one shown in Fig. 125. Such a knife is called a 
Sloyd knife. This knife is also especially designed for whittling. 

The knife and the gauge 
are always used where 
accurate measurements 
are required. 

Pencil. — The pencil, 
as a tool for laying out work, has been previously considered on page 4, 
Figs. 1 and la, for laying out the first rough lines. It is used where 
accuracy is not required and for several special operations. For 
example, if we wish to bevel or round an edge or a corner (Figs. 126 
and 126a). and should lay out the work with the knife or gauge, as in 
Fig. 127, it would be necessary to bevel or round to the line A in 
order to remove line E. To 
cut back to A would be the 
same as working without a line. 
For the reasons given above. 





Fig. 126— Bevelled Edges on Block 



Fig. 126a — Round Edges on Box 



Abuse of 
pencil. 



it will be evident that the pencil should be used for laying out bev- 
elled and round edges and corners. The pencil may be used against a 
straight-edge and square the same as the knife, but for rough work 
which needs (jnly to have a good appearance it may be used as in Fig. 
128. The tendency among beginners is to abuse the use of the pencil. 
Joint parts and pieces whence accuracij is required must not be laid out 
tcilh the pencil fur tjie line is too coarse. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 83 

Try Square 

The try square, the squaring tool most used by the bench worker, 
has been described and its use as a surface-testing and squaring tool 
explained (pages 15, 16 and 17, Figs. 27, 28, and 30); while the use of 





Fig. 127— Incorrect Method of Lay- 
ing Out Bevelled and Round Edges 



Fig. 128- 



-Edge Lining for Round and Bevelled 
Edges 



the square as a straight edge for marking lines is shown on pages 
22 and 23, Figs. 39/ to 39j, inclusive. For testing a gauge line with 
the square, see page 19, Fig. 37. 

For squaring an auger bit, see page 56, Fig. 71a. 

Framing Square. — While the framing square is a tool used mostly 
by the carpenter and builder, it is also of much use to the bench 
worker. The ordinary framing square is made with one blade 24'' 
long and one 16'' long. It is usually graduated on one side in ^V, jV'', cradua- 
i , i , i , and 1 , and on the other side in iV", ~l/, etc. The framing framing 
square is used as a straight-edge, as shown in Fig. 29, page 16. 
When used for squaring a board or cross lining the framing square is 
used as in Fig. la, page 4. 



84 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Use of 
taljlt's of 
board 
measure. 



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10 



I'l'I'I'I'l'ITI'l 



l"'l3'TI'|a''l'''i;'' 



•,4 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 31 54 57 60 18 

3154 38J& 4243 4667 5091 53.IB 5940 *3M klSt 7ZI2 7637 8061 8438 3 
24 27 30 33 36 39 42 4b 48 51 54 57 60 £4 

■¥ 



I I III I III I I 



iM I I I ri I I n I I 



jA 



M 



"I I I II 



Fig. 129 — Framing or Carpenter's Square —Showing Brace and Board 
Measure 



Tables of Board and Brace Measure on the 
Framing Square 

Fig. 129 shows one side of a framing square on which are 
given the tables of Iward and brace measure. 

Board Measure. — As has been said before, lumber is 
sold by the square foot, and the unit of measure is a board 
V X 12" X 12''. On the long blade of the square (Fig. 129) 
is given a table by the use of which one can read directly 
the square surface of any board 8, 10, or 14 feet long and 
from 2 to 24 inches in width. Some squares have tables 
giving 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15 feet. Such a table in- 
cludes nearly all the lengths of lumber usually carried in 
stock in a lumber yard. 

To get the square surface of a board by the use of the 
table, refer to the figure 12, which marks the twelve-inch 
graduation on the outside scale of the long blade; under 
12 will be found 8, 10, 14, the lengths of lumber for which 
the table is made. Find the number in this column 
giving the length of the board, follow the same line of 
figures to the right or left until directly under that number 
of the outside scale graduation, which gives the width of 
the board. The figure at the left of the line will give 
the whole number of square feet and the one at the right 
gives the fractional parts of a l)oard foot in twelfths. 

Example No. 1 : Find the board feet in a board V x 
4" X 8'. 



_ b 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 85 

Find 8, the length in feet of the board, in the first column under 
12 of the out-side scale graduation. Follow with the finger the same 
line of figures until directly under the 4 of the outside scale graduation. 
We find 2 to the left and 8 to the right of the line. The 2 is board feet 
and the 8 is y% of a board foot. The board I" x 4" x 8' has 2i\ board 
feet. 

Example No. 2: How many board feet in a })oard V x 16'^ 
X 14'? 

Under 12 find 14. Follow the same line of figures until under 
16 of the outside scale division. We find the board contains 18t\ 
feet. 

Example No. 3 : Find the board feet in a board 2" x 4" x 10'. The 
table given on the square is for boards one inch thick. A board two Lumber 
inches thick will have twice as many board feet as a board one inch one inch 

. . thick. 

thick. A board three inches thick will have three times as many feet, 
etc. 

Rule. — For boards that are more or less than one inch thick, find 
the board feet in the usual way and multiply the table figures by the 
thickness. It is coming to be the general practice, however, to quote Lumber 
prices for thickness of less than one inch by the square feet in surface, one inch 
thickness not considered. 

Example No. 4: Find the board feet in a board 1" x 12'' x 8'. 

We can see at once that if a board is twelve inches wide, every special 
foot in length will be a board foot, and the board will have 8 board 
feet. 

Example No. 5: Find the board feet in a board 1" x 6" x 12'. 
Twelve feet is not given in the table, but if we figure the square surface 
of the board we find that it has six board feet. 

A board 1" x 9" x 12' has 9 square feet; and a board 1" x 17" x 12' 
has 17 square feet. That is, a board 12 feet long has as man}^ square 
feet as it is inches wide. For this reason the twelve-foot length is not 
usually given in the table on the square, for the outside scale gradua- 



86 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



t^se of 

brace 

measure. 



tions are really a table of widths of which 12 is the given length 
in feet. 

Brace Measure. — On the short blade of the square (Fig. 129) will 
be found numbers H % gS? etc. These figures give equal distances on 
two sides of a frame, as A and B, Fig. 130, while the number imme- 
diately to the right of each of these figures gives the corresponding 
length of the brace C. 

For example, 2I 33.94 means that if A and B are each 24 
inches long, the brace C will be 33.94 inches long. Or if A and 
B are each 39 inches the figure to the right of I9, that is, 55.16 — 
gives the length of the brace C, etc. 

The use of the table is limited to the lengths given, and, with the 
exception of 24 30, A and B are equal. 



The Tee Bevel 



The bevel (Fig. 131) has. a beam {A, Fig. 132) corresponding to the 
beam of the try square, and a blade {B) which may be set to any 
required angle and held in place by the set-screw (C). When the bevel 
is set at any angle it is used the same as the try square. The head is 
placed agiiijist a marked edge and the blade is used as a straight-edge 




Fig. 130 Corner and Brace 



for dra\ving lines. 



Setting the Bevel 

If we wish to get the angle of a brace, 
as C, Fig. 130, and we know the length 
of A and B, lay off A and B on 
each part of the frame, place the beam 
of the bevel on either part, and adjust 
the blade to the extremity of A and 
B. If C is longer than the blade of 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 87 

the bevel, place a straight-edge along the line of C and set the 
blade to the face of it. 

If A and B are equal and the angle E is a right angle, the 
blade may be set to any two points at equal distance from the corner, 
and the angle of C will be obtained for any length of A and B. 





Fig. 131— Tee Bevel 



Fig. 132 — Setting Bevel to an Angle of 45° 



For example, if we wish to get the angle of any or all of the braces setting 



bevel to 



given in the table on the square (Fig. 129), except 24 30, we could angle of 
place the head of the bevel on either blade of the square and set the 
blade as in Fig. 132. If the bevel is set in this position and the beam 
is moved either way on the blade of the square, the blade of the 
bevel will always mark equal scale divisions on the two blades of the 
square. The angles D are angles of 45°. 



88 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Compasses 



General 
facts 
about 
angles. 



Angle of 
one degree 
defined. 



CircMim- 
rcrciicc of 
circle used 
to meas- 
ure angles. 



To Set the Bevel to 60° and 120° 

This will bring into use a new tool, the compasses * (Fig. 133.) The 

compasses are used for drawing the circumferences of circles and for 

spacing off equal measurements. y1 is a set-screw which clamps the 

leg to the wing (F) and holds it in place when set to the required 

dimensions. To set the compasses place the 
point on the scale, as in Fig. 134, bring the 
points as nearly to the scale dimensions as you 
can, quickly clamp the set-screw, then turn the 
nut (B, Fig. 133) either way as required. 
This will either draw or release the spring (C). 
The nut and spring are a convenient means 
of accurate final adjustment. 

Before we can lay out and obtain definite 
angles we must know certain facts about angles 
in general. If from any point, as 0, Fig. 135, 
we draw 360 lines so as to make all the spaces 
between the lines, as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, etc., 
equal, then each one of the angles between these 
lines is an angle of one degree. That is, an angle 

of one degree is one of 360 equal angles which 

can be drawn about a jioint. According to 

this definition, if we draw a circumference 

of a circle about the point 0, Fig. 135«, 

we can measure on that circumference just 

360 one-degree angles. Knowing this fact, 

if we can divide the circumference of a circle 

into any equal number of parts then we can 

easily find the number of one-degree angles 

which may be measured by each part. 

* J'lie large, rather poorly constructed tool used by the ear|)enter is ealletl the eom- 
I)asses, while the delicate, well-made tool used by the draughtsman is called the dividers. 




Fig- 133— Compasses 




Fig. 134— Setting Compasses to 
Dimensions 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE SO 

For example: Draw a circuiiiferciu'e of a cii'clc al)()ut 0, Fig. to meas- 
135o; without changing the setting oi the cunipasses space on the cir- of 6o°an<i 
cumference just ch'awn. We find that the circumference of the circle 
is divided into just six equal divisions. From what we have learned 
about the one-degree angle we know that through each of these 




Fig. 135— Laying Out 
One-Degree Angles 
About Point O 




Fig. 135a — 360 One-Degree 
Angles Will Cut the Cir= 
cumference of any Circle 




Fig. 135b — Circumference 
of Circle Used to Measure 
Angles 



divisions ^ of 360, or 60 one-degree angles may be drawn. This 
knowledge will enable us to lay out almost any angle. 

We cannot set the bevel to an angle drawn on paper. Rut if we 
joint the edge of a board and with the gauge draw a line parallel with 
the joint edge, as A — B, Fig. 136, we can set the bevel to any angle 
drawn on the board, having one of the sides parallel to A — B. 

To lay out a 60° angle on the 
board, with the compasses draw a part 
of any circumference, as D — E; with- 
out changing the compasses place one 
point at D, the point where E — D 
cuts A — B, and draw a line cutting 
E — D, as at A'. Through this point 
(A^) draw C — 0. Angle D — — C is an angle of 60°, for, as we have 
learned, it is I of all the one-degree angles that can be drawn about 0. 

It is easy to show that B — — C is an angle of 120°. To set the 
bevel at 60° place the beam along the edge of the board parallel to 
A — and set the blade along C — 0. To set bevel to 120°, place 
the beam on the edge parallel to — B and the blade along — C. 




Fig. 136 — Laying Out Angles of 60° and 120° 



90 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Cutting or Edge Tools 



The split- 
wedge. 



Obtuse 
cutting 
wedge. 



Acute 

cutting 

wedge. 



In the first three chapters of this book we learned that because 
of the nature of wood it was necessary to have the cutting edge of wood- 
working tools made to do certain kinds of work. In giving this in- 
formation it was assumed that the tools at hand were made correctly; 
but with continued use tools become dull and change their shape. If 
we examine a number (A tools we shall find many shapes and angles 
that do not seem to embody the principles given. In order to keep 
tools sharp and give them the best shape for doing any kind of work, 
it is necessary to know a few of the mechanical facts involved while 
the tool is performing the cutting operation. 

The object of this chapter is to give additional information about 
tools which will enable the workman not only to select tools but to 
shape and use them in such a way that they will do the most efficient 
cutting. A few experiments with a pocket-knife will give us a good 
understanding of some of the reasons why cutting edges of tools are 
made and used as they are. 

For example, if we start a cut on the end of a piece of wood, as in 
Fig. 137, the edge of the blade does a little cutting 
at first, but as the cut advances the wood is split 
ahead of the edge and the action of the blade is 
that of the splitting wedge. The only bearing of 
the wood upon the knife is at ^. As a result of 
this wedging the fibres are torn apart leaving a 
splintered rough surface. If we start a cut, as in 
Fig. 137a, and advance into it holding the knife so 
that the fibres are severed by the cutting edge, the surface (A) will be 
comi:)aratively smooth and the knife can be made to follow more 
nearly the required direction. 

If the sides of the cutting edge are made long and the angle between 
them very acute, so that one side of the blade may be held nearly flat 




Fig- 137— Knife Used as 
Splitting Wedge 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 91 

on the surface A, Fig. I37b, the cut will be made with less exertion, 
the surface A will be much smoother, and the knife may be con- 
trolled more easily. 

The longer the bearing the blade has on the surface (A Fig. 1375) 
the more efficient 
it is as a cutting 
tool, providing, of 
course, that the 
edge has sufficient 
strength to with- 
stand the strain. 
For this reason the 
chisel is ground only 
on one side. A few 
cuts with a sharp chisel will show that it cuts smoother and is much 
more easily controlled than is the knife. 

If we place a knife on a piece of wood at right angles to the fibre, The shear- 
as at A, rig. 13/c, and advance it mto the cut to the position B, 
always keeping the knife at the same angle and giving it only a forward 
motion, it will jiot cut nearly so well as it will if placed in the position 
A, Fig. lS7d, and advanced to B with a shding or shearing cut. 





Fig. 137a — Thick, Obtuse 
Cutting Edge 



Fig. 137b— Thin, Sharp Cutting 
Edge 



JZHL 





B-' /J'i7 



Fig. 137c— Straight Cut 



Fig. I37d— Shearing Cut 



92 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



CiittiiiK 
across the 
grain. 



The paring cut of the chisel, page 43, Fig. 67c makes use of this fact. 
For cutting across the grain the knife hekl as A, Fig. 137e, is 
much less efficient than one held as at B, the same figure. 

By making cuts with the knife 
at various angles and i)ositions, it 
will be found that the manipulation 
of the tool has quite as much to 
do with the efficiency as does its 
shape and sharpness. With the 
above facts in mind, we are ready 
Fig. 1376 -Cross-Grain Cutting for A cousideratiou of the edge tools. 




N urn her 
of twill 
anrl iitim- 
Ul'T of 

points. 



The Saw * 

We have learned to select the crosscut and the rip saw, and also 
that for hard and soft wood and for rough and smooth cutting, 
different shapes and styles of tools are necessary. Saws ofTer no 
exception to this general fact. 

Saws are catalogued and are spoken of as being a certain number 
of inches long and as having a given number of teeth or points to the 
inch. The number of teeth are always one less than the number of 
points per inch. 

Saws with large teeth will cut faster but require more strength to 
push them. The teeth are weaker and the surface of the cut is rougher 
than is the case with small teeth. The teeth of the rip saw are usually 
larger and of a different pitch or angle than those of the correspond- 
ing crosscut saw. They generally range from three and one half to 
eight i)()ints to the inch for a 26" saw, while the crosscut saw teeth 
range from four to twelve points. Some of the special back saws 
have as many as sixteen points to the inch. 

* .Many of the fads .-ihout saws <iivon in tliis cliajitor aro taken from " Disston's 
Hand liook on Saws." Fig.s. 1;^7p, 14;i, 14.V/, 144, 1 11'/, and 144/; aro copied direct. By 
jjorini.ssion of Henry Disston «& Sons, saw makers. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 93 



Set 



All saws, with the exception of the very finest back saws, and 
some special saws, are set — that is, the adjacent teeth are bent in op- 
posite directions in order to make the cut, or kerf, wider than the thick- 
ness of the blade. (See Figs. 138, 141, and 142.) The set or bend in 
the teeth should never extend into the body of the 
blade for fear of cracking or otherwise weakening it. 
The saw should always be set before it is sharpened. 

We find again, as with the other tools, that there 
are many commercial forms of saw sets, as the tool 
for setting the saw is called. Figs. 139 and 139« 
show the forms of saw sets generally used by the 
mechanic who wishes only to keep his own tools in 
order. A few minutes' actual work with the saw set will be sufficient 
to give one an understanding of how to operate it, but it takes con- 
siderable experience to get the best results. 




Fig. 138 ^The Set of 
the Saw Teeth Makes 
the Kerf Wider than 
the Blade 



Saw sets. 



Filing the Saw 



All saws are sharpened by filing 
rigid either by clamping in 
a special vise, as in Fig. 
140, or between two boards 
in the regular bench vise, as 
in Fig. 140fl. 

The saw must always 
be held firmly, so that 
when cutting the file will 
produce a solid grinding 
sound. The file that 
screeches and screams is 



The blade of the saw is made ciamping 

the saw for 
filing. 





Fig. 139 — Saw Set 



Fig. 139a — Saw Set 



94 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

merely being worn out and is not doing good work. All saws should 
be filed from the handle toward the point. 




Fig. 140— Special Saw Vise 





31 




1 



Fig. 140a — Saw Clamped in Bench Vise between Boards 



Rip Saw 

After setting, the teeth of the rip saw are filed square across the 
blade— that is, at right angles to the blade both horizontally and 
Filing. vertically. If the adjacent teeth are filed from opposite sides, as C 
and D, Fig. 141, the cutting edge will be given a slight bevel which 
will make each tooth cut with a shearing action, thus increasing 
the ease and efficiency of the cut, as is shown by the experiment with 
the knife, Fig. 137d, page 91. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 95 



Fig. 141 is a true mechanical drawing, with the exception that in 
the plan (B) the perspective is added, in order to show more clearly 
the set in the teeth and ,^ 

the effect of filing from / '. 

both sides. The angle 
(F, Fig. 141) at the 
point of the tooth is 
changed by changing 
the direction of the line 
(G), the advancing edge 
of the tooth being always 
the same. For hard- 
wood sawing the angle 
(F) is more obtuse and 
the teeth are smaller 
than for sawing soft 
wood. 



The Crosscut Saw 

The general shape of 
the crosscut saw and the 
reasons for making it 

as it is are given on pages 5 and 6, Figs. 3, 4, and 5. The 
adjacent teeth of the crosscut saw are filed from opposite sides. 
The file is held at right angles to the vertical face and at an angle of 
about 45° to the horizontal. The angle is measured between the 
handle of the file and the handle of the saw. In Fig. 142, A 
shows the side elevation and B the plan of a crosscut saw. D 
is the file in the horizontal position, while C and C^ are the positions 
of the file when looked down on from above. 

Fig. 137e illustrates an experiment showing that the advancing 




-Filing Rip Saw 



Filing 



Slant of 
teeth. 



9() 



MAx\UAL TRAINING 1^X)R COM.MON SCHOOLS 



Special 
shapes 
of teeth 



Filing for 
hard aiul 
soft wood 
cutting. 



edge of a crosscutting tool is more efficient when it has a certain 
amount of sUmt in the diixn-tion of the cut. In order to take advan- 
tage of that fact the advancing edges of the crosscut saw teeth are 
made, as a rule, at an angle of about 60°. For example, teeth shaped 

as in Fig. 143 cut 
better than those 
shaped as in Fig. 
143a. This lat- 
ter form of tooth 
strikes the fibre 
of the wood 
square at right 
angles and breaks 
rather than cuts 
out the shaving. 
A saw thus filed 
is likely to stop 
(juickly in the 
stroke and either 
be broken or 
buckled. There 
is more strain on 
the teeth and 
they will not hold 
the set or the 

edge so well. For these reasons the advancing edge of the tooth is 
seldom changed, l)ut the angle (B, Fig 143) is always changed by 
changing the direction of the line (C). 

If the points of the saw teeth are too acute they will not stand the 
strain of hard-wood sawing. Consequently the shapes of the points of 
the teeth are made according to the work to be done. Figs. 144, 144a, 
and 1446 are the mechanical drawings of a single tooth, showing the 




Fig. 142 — Filing Crosscut or Hand Saw 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 97 

effect on the shape of the point when the angle of the back face of the 
tooth (B) is changed. A tooth shaped as in Fig. 144, faces A and 
B equal, is for soft wood, as in Fig. 144rt, B at an angle less than 
A, is for medium hard- wood and for general cutting, and a tooth 




Fig. 143 — Usual Shape of Saw 
Teeth for Crosscutting 




Fig. 143a — Teeth Filed too 
Straight on Front Face 




N 



Fig. 144 — Shape of 
Saw Teeth for 
Cutting Soft 
Wood 




Fig. 144a — Shape of 
Saw Teeth for 
General Cutting 




Fig. 144b — Shape 
of Saw Teeth for 
Cutting Hard 
Wood 



shaped as in Fig. 1446 is for hard- wood cutting. The effect on the 
point of the tooth produced by the change in the angle of the edge (5) 
is easily seen in the drawing. 

It will also be noticed that face A is the same in each case. 



Special Saws 

Back Saw. — This saw has been used in the joint work and is 
shown on page 40, Fig. 65. The teeth of the back saw are about 
the same angle as those of a regular crosscut or hand saw, but are 
much finer, 

Mitei' Saiv. — ^This is simply a long, heavy back saw, as shown in the 
miter-box (Fig. 145), and is used for very accurate crosscutting. The 
teeth are not generally set, but the feather-edge left by the file is suffi- 



98 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Miter box. 



Compass 
saw. 



cient to make the kerf of the saw wider than the blade, for the saw is 
seldom used on any but well-seasoned lumber. The miter saw is held 
in a special frame or miter-box. (Fig. 145.) This box holds the saw 
perfectly true, either square across the piece to be cut or at an angle of 

45° either way from the centre. 
The saw leaves the surface of the 
wood in such a smooth condition 
that no further finish is necessary 
for joining the sawed surfaces. 
The compass saw (Fig. 146), 




Fig. 145 — Miter Saw and Box 





Fig. 146a — Turning or Web Saw 





Fig. 146 



Fig. 146b — Coping Saw 



Coping 
saw. 



Turning or thc tumiug or web saw (Fig. 

web saw. 

14G«), and the coping saw 
(Fig. 1466), are all made for 
cutting to curved lines and for 
special cuts where the other 



Ko.y-hole 
saw. 




Fig. 147 — Nest of Saws 



saws will not work because of their size and shape. Fig. 147 shows a 



nest of saws which fit the sanu^ handle 
are used as compass and key-hole saws. 



the smaller blades of the set 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 99 

Selecting a Saw 

In selecting a saw care should be taken to choose one that is well 
hung — that is, one which is in good balance. The handle should fit the 
hand, and when making a cut it should be easy to hold to the line. 
Spring the blade and see that it bends evenly in proportion to the width 
from the tip to the butt. The thinner the blade the better, if it is 
stiff enough to "stand the strain of cutting. A new saw should be well 
set and sharpened, and one should always take a cut with it before 
buying. 

Planes 

The planes most used have been considered at some length on sharpen- 
pages 8 to 10, Figs. 7 to 13, inclusive, and grinding and oil-stoning, 
pages 12 and 13, Figs. 15 to 20. The parts of the plane, their use, and The parts 
their adjustment were considered on pages 13 to 15, Figs. 21 to 26. use of. 

Special Planes 

The wood-worker of a few years ago who did an3^thing more than universal 
the most common work had to have a whole set of special planes, con- ^ ^"^^' 




Fig. 148 — Universal Plane 



100 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

sisting of rounds, hollows, beading, rabbeting, matching, antl many 
others. Planes have been im])roved so much recently, however, that 
a single plane stock provided with special cutters will take the place 
of all the others. Such a plane is called a universal plane and is shown 




Fig. 148a— Universal Plane Set to Cut Moulding 



Fig. 148b— Universal Plane, Special Setting 



Circular 
jilane. 



in Figs. 148, 148o, 1485. The figures show the same plane set for 

different operations. 

The above universal plane is very elaborate, probably too elaborate 

for ordinary use : but planes may be obtained for doing an}^ one or any 

group of operations, such as hollows, 
rounds, matching, rabbeting, etc. 

Universal and special planes are 
always accompanied w^ith full direc- 
tions for adjusting and using, which 
are much better than can be given 




here. 



Fig. 149— Circular Plane 



The Circular Plane (Fig. 149) is a 
plane with a thin steel base, which 
may l)e made concave or convex, to work on either a concave or a 
convex surface. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 101 




Fig. 15b— Spokeshave 




Fig. 151— Spokeshave 



The spokeshaves, two types of which are shown in Figs. 150 and ^po^^- 

151, are in reahty planes, but are not generally considered as such. 

As is shown in the cuts, the bits are set in a very short stock, which 

enables them to 

cut on an irreg- 

ular surface. 

Fig. 150 shows a 

tool with a screw 

adjustment for 

depth of cut. 
The Router 

Plane, one form 

of which is shown in Fig. 152, is convenient for cutting or smoothing 

the bottom of a gain or groove. Such planes are used a great deal 

for cutting out equal depths of 
stock for inlaying — that is, for 
setting in pieces of wood of dif- 
ferent kinds from the one with 
which we are working. A good 
example is parquetry flooring. 

Special planes are made for 
almost every kind of work. Ref- 
erence to a dealers' catalogue will 
usually give the desired infor- 
Fig. 152— Router Plane uiatiou about auy plane needed. 

Chisels 

Chisels are listed or catalogued according to their size and length. The size 

o of chisels 

As stated before, the size of a chisel is designated by the width of the 
cutting edge, and ranges from one eighth inch to one inch, by eighth 
inches, as Y, Y, f, Y, etc., and from one to two inches, by quarter 
inches. 




102 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Tang and 

socket 

chisels. 



Square and 
bevelled 
edge 
chisels. 



T.vi)e; 
cliisi'l 



of 



Fig. 153— Tang Chisel 






Fig. 154 — Socket Chisel 



Chisels are called tang or socket chisels, according to the way in 
which the handles are fastened to the blades. The tang chisel has 
an end which fits into the handle, as in Fig. 153. The socket chisel has 
an end into which the handle fits, as in Fig. 154. 

Both the tang and the socket chisels 
are manufactured with blades having 
square edges, as in Figs. 153 and 154, or 
with bevelled edges, as in Figs. 155 and 
156. The bevelled edge 
chisel presents the bet- 
ter appearance, seems 
to be hung better — 

that is, to have the better balance — and is more easily ground and oil- 
stoned, because it has less grinding surface on account of the corners 
having been cut away. The bevelled edge chisel costs a little more 
than the square edge. 

Paring, Firmer, and Framing Chisels. — According to their use, 
chisels are designated as paring, firmer, and framing chisels. The 
paring chisel is a large, thin-bladed chisel used mostly for light work, 
and should not be driven into the cut by a mallet. The firmer chisel 
is somewhat heavier and shorter than the paring chisel and is driven 
into its cut by a mallet on light work. The framing chisel is a short, 

heavy chisel made to stand 
driving with a mallet, and for 
this reason the handle is 
usually protected by a ferrule, 



Fig. 155— Tang Chisel with Bevelled Edge 



as is the handle of 
Fig. 160. 

All three of the 
above-m e n t i o n e d 

chisels are made either with square or bevelled edges and with tang or 
socket for holding the handle, although the tang does not hold the 



Fig. 156— Socket Chisel with Bevelled Edge 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 103 

handle of the chisel as well as the socket. All chisels are ground and sharpen- 
oil-stoned the same as the plane bit (pages 12 and 13, Figs. 16 to 20, a"rf/a test 
inclusive). For test of sharpness, put a piece of soft wood in the vise ness. 
and cut it across the grain. As stated in the second chapter, the cut 
should be smooth. 

Special cuts and operations with chisels have been considered as special 
follows: Chiselling end of lap joint, page 42, Fig. 67. Paring cut, page operations. 
43, Fig. 67c. Bevelling to line, page 43, Fig. 676. ChiselUng mortise, 
pages 51 to 55, Figs. 70e to 70^, inclusive. 

All chisels are ground with more or less bevel at the cutting edge, 
according to the nature of the material they are to cut and the kind of 
work to be done. 

Gouges 

Gouges (Figs. 157 and 158) are chisels the blades of which are 
curved. They are designated as tang, socket, paring, firmer, and 
framing gouges, the same as are the flat chisels. 

If the gouge is ground on the outside (Fig. 158) — that is, on the con- outiwe 

c • • 11 1 • 1 1 c ^'^*^ inside 

vex surface — it is called an outside-ground gouge. If ground on the ground 

. , „ gouges. 

mside, or concave surface 
(Fig. 157), it is called an 

Fig. i57-Insi(le-Ground Gouge iuside-grOUUd gOUgC. 

The size of the gouge size of 
is the length of a 
straight line across the 
corners of the cutting ^. o r> * ., r< 

*5 Fig. 158— Outside-Ground Gouge 

edge, and ranges from 

one-eighth of an inch to one inch, by eighths of an inch, and from one 

to two inches, by quarter inches. 

The curvature of the blade of a gouge is called the sweep, and sets sweep of 
of gouges are made in three sweeps — flat sweep, middle sweep, and 
full or quick sweep. For the flat sweep it takes eighteen gouges 



gouges. 



104 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



To obtain 
any sweep. 



of any size to complete a circle. For the middle sweep it takes six, 
and for the full or quick sweep it takes three. This is theoretical. 
The gouges will, in reality, vary slightly from this owing to the diffi- 
culty of getting them correct.* But they will be near enough so that 
the following diagrams (.1, B, C, Fig. 159) may be used to obtain 
approximateh' the size and shape of any gouge in any set. For 
example, to obtain the shape and size of a gouge in the flat sweep 
with as a centre (^4, Fig. 159), and a radius 5.9'' long, draw an 
arc, as G — F, so that the cliord of the arc will be 2''; the arc will 
be the shape or curvature and the chord will be the size of the 
two-inch flat sweep gouge. If we measure down the radii — G 
and — F t<^ the points where they are If" 
apai't, and, with as a centre, draw another arc 
through the points, the arc will be the shape and 
the chord will be the size of the If gouge. In 
the same way, with as a centre, we can draw 
an arc at the points where the radii — F and 
0-G are 1^, H", 1", ¥, 
etc., apart and thus obtain 
the curvature and size of 
all gouges in the set. 

For the middle sweep, 
proceed the same way, only 
the first radius will be 2" 
long, and for the full or 
quick sweep the first radius 
will be 1.15" long. 

As stated above, these 
measurements are only 
ap})r()ximate, Init are close enough to give valuable aid in ordering 
gouges. 

* Iiif(jriii;itiou ubtuined from Mack iV: Co., Rochester, New York, tool makers. 





1,15 R/»p.us 
Fig. 159 — Cuts Show Method for Getting Sweep of Gouge 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 105 

Corner Chisels 

A corner chisel (Fig. 160) is a chisel with the blade made in such a 
way as to form a right angle. It is convenient for cutting corners in 
mortises and similar openings. 



Fig. 1 60 — Corner Chisel 



Auger Bits 

The form of the auger bit in most common use is shown in Fig 161. 
Such bits usually come in sets of thirteen, ranging in size from one- 
quarter to one inch, by sixteenths — that is, i", f/, i'\ ^\'\ \", etc. 
The size of the bit is the 
size of the hole that it 
bores, and is marked on 
the shank (h, Fig. 161) as 



11^ 1 




Fig. 161 — Common Auger Bit 



Size of 
auger bitf 




Fig. 162 — Expansive Bit 



4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., meanmg 

4 'f 5 " 6 " Jl " %J' pf p 
llT 7 ITT > 17 J ITS" J 16 J clL. 

Bits for boring holes 
larger than one inch may 
be obtained; but an ex- 
pansive bit (Fig. 162) is a very efficient tool with wider range of use- 
fulness and will cost much less than sets of bits over one inch of the 
type shown in Fig. 161. The cutter («) of the expansive bit shown 
in Fig. 162 may be adjusted and held in any position by the screw, 
thus regulating the size of the hole to be bored. The expansive bit 
is usually made in two sizes, the smaller size boring holes from f^' to 
If, and the larger size from |'' to ?>" . Each size is provided with two 
lengths of cutters. 

The Irwin Bit. — In recent years the form of bit shown in Fig. 161 



Expan- 
sive bits. 



Solid 
centre 
stem bits. 




106 IMANUAL TRAINTNG FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

has been inucli improved upon by the type shown in Fig. 163. The 
chief feature in the added efficiency of this bit is that the single twist 
offers less resistance to the shavings by giving more room for them to 

carry up out of the hole. 
These bits are known 
under the trade name of 

Fig. 163 — Irwin Solid Centre Stem Bit 

''The Irwin Car Bit," or 
the solid centre stem bit and range in size the same as the other bits. 

To Sharpen an Auger Bit 

xibs. Auger bits are sharpened by filing. The nibs (a and b, Fig. 161), 

are alwa3^s filed on the insicie. To file them on the outside would 
decrease the diameter of the bit at the point and thus the diameter of 
the hole, which in turn would prevent the bit from entering the 
wood. The lips — that is, the cutting edges— are filed on the under 
surface, the edge being made the shape of a chisel. The screw (c) at 
the centre of the bit, which draws it into the wood, is called the 

Spur. spur. Care should be taken not to injure the spur, for the efficiency 
of the bio depends upon it. 

Special Bits 

The larger dealers carry in stock a variety of l)its suitable for almost 
any form of work. A few special types are given below. 

Fostner Bit. — The Fostner bit, shown in Fig. 164, is a bit made 
without the spur. It leaves the bottom of the hole flat, a great ad- 
vantage in some holes that are not to be bored entirely through. 
Another feature is that the bit ^^ 

will cut with any portion of the ^3 ^^——^^^^—'^^ ^^— 
face overlai)pihg an edge, as shown Fig. 164 -Fostner Bit 

in Fig. 165. This is a con- 
venience in removing the stock from a mortise or any other recess in 
the wood. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 107 



Gimlet Bit. — The gimlet bit (Fig. 166) is made in sizes ranging 
from s\" to ^", by a difference in size of -^". This type of bit is good 
for boring small holes; but in boring into small pieces one must be 
careful not to split the wood. The 
tapering end, unless very sharp, 
wedges its way into the bore, and 
tends to split the piece. 

Another and generally speak- 
ing a better type of gimlet bit is 
shown in Fig. 167. This form of 
bit is not so likely to split the wood and is much easier to sharpen. 
It ranges in size the same as the other gimlet bits. 




Fig. i6s — Special Cuts with Fostner Bit 



Size of 
gimlet bits. 



Fig. 1 66 —German Gimlet Bit 



Fig. 167— Morse Gimlet Bit 



Fig. 168 shows a twist drill. While it is made for boring metal, it Twist driu. 
is very convenient for boring small holes in wood. It has the advan- 
tage of being stronger and giving a wider range of sizes than the 
regular gimlet bits. It ranges in size from No. 1 to No. 60. No. 1 is 
a little smaller than one-ciuarter inch, while No. 
60 is too small for any form of wood-work. The 
successive sizes vary by a small fraction of an 
inch. Any of the braces described below will hold a twist drill not 
less than one-quarter inch in diameter. For smaller diameter a brace 
like the one shown in Fig;. 1696 is used. 



Fig. 168— Morse Twist Drill 



Bit Braces 

All of the bits mentioned above are driven to their work by means 
of a brace, the most general form of which is shown in Fig. 169, 
though there are many modifications of this simple form. 



108 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Ratchet-Brace 

Fig. 169a shows a ratchet-brace. The ratchet which is placed at 
a is an arrangement which enables one to drive a bit where it is not 
possible to make a complete revolution of the brace. This result is 
accomplished by means of two dogs or pawls, which may be made to 



Fig. 169— Plane Brace 



Fig. 169a— Ratchet-Brace 



catch in a notched wheel. When both pawls are resting in the notches 
the brace works the same as the simple brace. (Fig. 169.) By turning 
a collar at a one or the other of the dogs may be raised and held out 
of the notch. If we wish to drive a bit into a corner where the brace 
will not make a complete turn, one pawl may be left in the notch and 
the other raised. A forward motion of the brace drives the bit. A 

backward motion leaves the bit 
stationary, while the pawl, 
which is in the notches, slips 
back and takes its place in an- 

Fig. 169b — Breast Drill ii , i i j. i • j.1 

other notch ready to drive the 
bit foi'ward on the forward stroke. The usefulness of such a brace 
is self-evident. 




Universal Angular Brace 

Fig. 170 shows a universal angular brace. This brace is for 
boring into corners or at any angle. 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 109 



Bit Stop 

A, Fig. 171, shows a convenient stop attachment for any size bit. 
By means of the clamping screw (B) the attachment may be clamped 

in any position on the shank of the bit. 
This enables the workman to bore a 
hole, or any number of holes, to any 
required depth. 





Fig. 170 — Universal Angular Brace 



Fig. 171— Bit Stop Attaciied to Bit 



Miscellaneous Tools 

The draw-knife (Fig. 172) is in reality a chisel, though not usually 
classed as such. The blade is sharpened flat on one side hke the 
chisel, while the handles are made for pulling rather than for driving 
or pushing. The draw-knife is used for rather rough modelling and 
for cutting to a straight line 
when the cut is made on the 
edge of the board. 

Hammer. — The hammer, 
its use and construction, 
have been considered on 

page 70, Figs. 112a and b, Fig. 172 -Draw-Knife 

and Fig. 113. 

Nail Set. — For nail set, 
see page 71, Fig. 114. 

Sa^ew- Driver. — For screw- 
driver, see page 74, Fig. 

Fig. 172a — Draw-Knife, Handles Down to Protect -i oi 

Cutting Edge 1.^1. 





no MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Dressing 
t lie grind- 
stone. 



Wasliita 
and Ar- 
kansas 
stones. 



Oil for 
stone. 



Screw Countersink. — For screw countersink, see page 73, Fig. 
119. 

Grindstone. — The use of the grindstone, for grinding edge tools, 
has been considered on page 12, Fig. 16. As is stated, a represents 
the tool, h the stone, and the arrow the direction in which the stone 
is turning. The relation between the direction of the stone and the 
cutting edge of the tool is usually as stated, but for beginners it is 
safer to put the tool on the other side, where there is no danger of its 
catching. 

The grindstone for wood-working tools should be medium soft and 
coarse. This will cut fast and give a reasonably good surface to the 
cutting edge of the tool. Water should always be used on a gruid- 
stone to wash out the crumbled parts of the stone and metal. If the 
surface of the stone becomes gummed or out of shape it nmst be 
dressed. A convenient method of dressing a stone is to use a gas-pipe 
over a rest the same as a turning tool. There are several forms of 
commercial stone-dressers which are easy to use. However, stone- 
dressing should be done by the older workmen. 

Oil-Stone. — All grinding on the grindstone should be followed by 
whetting on an oil-stone. The principle of whetting has been given 
on pages 12 and 13, Figs. 18, 19 and 20. 

The best oil-stones are known as the Washita and the .Arkansas 
stones. These are natural stones quarried and cut to the requu'ed 
shapes. The stone is hard, with a very fine grit, w^hich gives an unusu- 
ally fine edge to the tool. For ordinary wood-working it is not neces- 
sary to have so fine or so expensive a stone. 

India Oil-Stone. — ''India Oil-Stone" is the trade name given to 
an oil-stone manufactured in the United States. It is made of emery 
held together by a cement. This stone is very efficient and is reason- 
able in price. 

When in use, the surface of the oil-stone should be covered with a 
thin layer of the best grade of lubricating oil — not the heavy cyUnder 



TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 111 

oil, hut a, Ihiu oil without umcli gum. One should always guard 
against the use of too much oil, for the dirty oil-stone is the worst 
source of grime around a bench. 

Oil-stones are made in many shapes and sizes. The two sizes and 
shapes in most constant use, however, are given in Figs. 173 and 174. 




Fig. 173— Common Shape for Bench Oil-Stone Fig. 174— Oil-Stone Slip 



the oil- 
stone. 



To true the face of an oil-stone, rub it over a flat piece of No. 1| Totme 
sand-pa])er. 

Oil-Can. — All shops should be provided with a sufficient number 
of oil-cans. 



CHAPTER VI 

WOOD FINISHING 

^YooD finishing is a trade all by itself. It is seldom that the work- 
man who does the wood-work does the finishing also. It will, therefore, 
. be the object of this chapter to give only enough about wood finishing 
to enable the amateur to finish well the articles of wood-work spoken of 
in this volume and similar articles which these may suggest to him. 

The Objects of Wood Finishing 

The first and real object of wood finishing is to protect the wood 
mus°n)e ^^"^^^^^ moisture, dirt, and weather. All wood should be well dried or 
seasoned, geasoncd, as the drying process is called, before it is used in any kind 
of construction. But, no matter how well it is seasoned, if moisture 
comes in contact with the wood it will be absorbed, the wood will 
expand, and when the moisture again dries out the wood will contract. 
If this expansion and contraction takes place at all it will cause cracking 
and weakening, and if continued it will cause a general letting go of all 
the joints to the utter ruin of the article of wood-work. If dirt of any 
kind comes in contact with the unprotected surface, the wood is at 
once covered with a grime that cannot be cleaned off. Consequently 
it will be seen that the first object of finishing is to protect the wood. 
Another object of wood finish, and indeed of almost as much im- 
portance as the one just mentioned, is to add beauty to the manufact- 
ured article. Any really good wood finish will meet both requirements. 

112 



WOOD FINISHING 113 

Painting and Hard-Wood Finishing 

Painting protects the wood by covering it with a coating of material 
which conceals the surface entirely and has come to be used almost 
entirely on work which must withstand the elements. The beauty 
of painted wood-work is all in the paint. 

Hard-wood finishing is a term used to designate the form of wood 
finishing generally used on interior house work, cabinet work, etc. 
Unlike painting, this form of wood finishing seeks to bring out the 
natural beauty of the wood, and by the use of transparent coverings, 
such as varnish, shellac, waxes, oils, etc., seeks also to protect the 
wood. This latter form of wood finishing is of most concern to the 
amateur, and therefore will be considered first. 

Hard-Wood Finishing 

The first and most important requirement in hard-wood finishing condition 
is that the surface of the wood be put in proper condition to receive 
the finish. This means that the surface must be free from all defects, 
such as scratches, nail-holes, shaky knots, irregularities in the surface, 
and many others, which experience w^ill teach us to observe. 

To obtain the required surface on the wood, great care should be 






Fig. 175— Plain Straight- Fig. 175a— Concave and Fig. 175b— Swan-Neck 

Edge Scraper Convex Scraper Scraper 

taken. First, a very sharp, smooth plane should be run over the whole Piane the 
surface and, so far as possible, all defects should be removed. In case 
of knots or cross grain, where the plane will not work well, a scraper is 



surface. 



114 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

used. The scraper is a thin piece of saw steel of convenient size to 
manipulate well. Figs, 175, 175a, and 1756 show the forms most 
used. 



Flat 
scraper. 

Convex 
and con- 
cave 
scraper. 



Swan- 
neck. 




Fig. 176— Making Straight Edge on Scraper 



The Scraper and Its Use 

The scraper, though a useful tool, is likely to be pressed into service 
too freely by an amateur. Any attempt to remove a considerable, 
amount of stock with a scraper will result in failure, so far as finish 

is concerned, for it is impossible to 
guide the scraper in such a way as 
entirely to prevent inequalities in 
the surface which mar the finish. 
The scraper is, however, a very effi- 
cient tool if properly used, and is 
indispensable in all forms of cabinet 
work. To do effective work, the 
scraper must be sharp. The sharp- 
ening of a scraper is learned only by 
experience. A few suggestions are 
offered, however, in order to give the 
beginners a start. The shape of the 
cutting edge of a scraper should be 
ground to meet the requirements of 
the surface to be scraped. For flat 
surfaces, use a scraper as in Fig. 175; 
f(jr convex and concave surfaces, use 
one as in Fig. 175a, while for mould- 
ings and various parts of irregular curves, the swan-neck scraper is to 
l)e used (Fig. 1756). The entire edge of the swan-neck is sharpened, 
and when scra]Ding the part of the edge wliich most nearly fits the 
surface should be used. 




Fig. 176a Testing Edge of Scraper with 
Try Square 



WOOD FINISHING 



115 



To Sharpen the Scraper 




Fig. 176b — Draw-Filing 
Scraper 



The irregular-shaped scrapers can seldom be sharpened by grinding, 

because of the shapes, and the amateur will find it difficult to grind 

even the straight-edge scraper. When one has sufficient skill to grind 

the ordinary tools properly, scraper- 
grinding will solve itself. In the 
meantime filing is probably the best 
way for a beginner to sharpen a 
scraper. 

To sharpen a straight-edge scraper, 
place it in the vise and; with a fine file, 
file the edge straight, as is shown in 
Fig. 176. To make sure that the edge 
is straight, test it with the blade of 

the try square, as in Fig. 176a. The edge of the scraper should also 

be square with the face. When the edge is straight and square, 

place the file across it as in Fig. 

1766, and pass the file from end to 

entl two or three times. This is called 

draw-filing. After this operation a very 

fine burr will be found on each edge. 

Remove the scraper from the vise and 

oil-stone it flat on each side, as in Fig. 

176c. Then oil-stone it square on the 

edge, as in Fig. 176c^. When the edges 

are sharp and square, replace the scraper 

in the vise, and with a screw-driver or 

gouge, or, what is still better, a butcher's 

steel, turn a sharp burr by passing the steel across the edges with 

considerable pressure. (Fig. 176e.) This burr forms the cutting 

edge. 




Fig. 176c— Oil-Stoning Flat Side of 
Scraper to Remove Feather-Edge 



Filing the 
scraper. 



Sharpen- 
ing 

straight- 
edge 
scraper. 



Draw- 
filing. 



Oil- 
stoning. 



Turning 
the edge. 



116 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

When the scraper is but sHghtly (killed the last operation is all 
that is required to renew the edge. A little practice will enable one to 




?^P;3| 




^^^^ flUMWi'illl 


|#^ 


"^VH 


p«« 




■ 


gHK», <Hsvo^i|^H 



Fig i76d — Oil-Stoning Edge of Scraper 
to Make Sharp, Square Corners 



Fig. i76e — Turning Edge of Scraper with 
Butcher's Steel 



sharpen a scraper so that it will cut a good, clean shaving, rather than 
merely scrape, as its name might indicate. 



Position of 
scraper. 



How to Use the Scraper 

To make a cut with the scraper, grip it in both hands and place it on 
the wood with a slant in the direction of the cut. (Fig. 177.) The slant 

should be sufficient to make the burr, 
which was made in sharpening, grip 
the wood and cut a shaving on the 
forward stroke of the scraper. When 
the exact position or slant is found 
it must be carefully maintained 
throughout the entire stroke, for, 
like other tools, the cutting edge of 

Fig. 177-Correct Way of Holding Scraper tllC SCrapCr mUSt be held intO the CUt. 




WOOD FINISHING 



117 



The tendency among beginners is to rock the scraper — that is, to Rocking 
start it at the proper slant, as at B, Fig. 177a, and constantly change scraper, 
the slant through the entire cut and end as at C, Fig. 177a. Such 
use of the scraper is of incorrect wsinoNs 

no avail. It should be l^' ' 

held rigidly on the 
cutting edge through- 
out the entire stroke. 
It may be pushed or 
pulled, the only re- 
quirement being that 
it be held properly. A 
piece of old sand- 

^ ^ Fig. 177a — Correct and Incorrect Positions of Scraper 

paper laid over the 

face of the scraper, with the sand down, will give a good grip and 

prevent burning the fingers. 




Sand-Papering 

When we are sure that it will not be necessary to do any more 
cutting with edge tools, and not until then, we can use sand-paper when to 
to finish a piece of wood. The grit left in the pores of the wood paper" " 
by the sand-paper will take the edge off the tool almost as effec- 
tively as will a grindstone. When sand-paper is used it should be 
treated as a tool, which it really is, and should be handled just as 
carefully. 

Sand-prfper is numbered according to the size of the grains of size of 
sand used on the surface. The numbers begin with 00 (double paVr. 
nought), which is the smallest, and range as follows: 00, 0, |, 1, 
1-2", 2, 2^, 3. Commercial packages of sand-paper contain one ream, 
in sheets 9" x 11'', though most dealers sell any number of sheets 
desired. 



118 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



How to Use Sand-Paper 



paptT 
under 
liaiid. 



held 
the 



Sand- 
paper 
t)lock. 



For the first sanding of a piece of lumber the coarse sand-paper is 
used, though it is seldom necessary to use Nos. 2^ and 3, for they 
leave such deep scratches that it takes a great deal of sanding with 
finer paper to remove them. 

If sand-paper is held under the hand, as in Fig. 178, it will follow 
the exact shape of the surface. If we attempt to sand-paper on or 
near an edge, it will drag the corners and spoil the neat, sharp lines 

by making them rounding; and if we 
examine the surface of the paper we 
shall find that most, if not all of the 
cutting has been done by the spots upon 
which the fingers or the parts of the 
hand rested. This means a waste of 
paper and time as well as a poor piece 
of work. To overcome all of the above 
difficulties the sand-paper block, as 
shown in Fig. 179, is used. 

The sand-paper is cut into strips and 
drawn over tlie sharp edges of the block, as in Fig. 180. The sharp 
edges prevent the paper from slipping. The face of the block, over 
which the paper is drawn, should be perfectly straight, flat, and 
smooth, so that every p^rt of the 
paper will come in contact with the 
surface of the wood. Sand -paper 
thus held will not follow the small 
depressions in the surface, but will 
cut only on the high spots, gradually 
bringing them level. The i)aper can- 
not drag the edges because it is held up l)y the blocl<. In fact, the 
block gives one perfect control of the cutting of the sand-paper and 




Fig. 178— Incorrect Way of Holding 
Sand-Paper 




Fig. 179— Sand-Paper Block 



WOOD FINISHING 



119 




[ 1 



179a — Mechanical Drawing of Sand-Paper Block 



makes it an efficient tool. The paper, however, should never be tacked 
or nailed to the block, for it is necessary to renew it often and tack- 
ing takes too much time, besides spoiling the block. 

In general, sand-papering should be done parallel to the grain of sand- ^_ ^^ 
the wood, and, indeed, . the grain. 

carefully so. Careless . .-, 1- ,-^. 

cross-grain strokes with 1 / \ ■ 

the paper will cause 
scratches, which show 
plainly when the wood 

is finished, and the better the finish the more they show. A tendency 
of the beginner is to stand at one side of the piece to be sanded and 
pass the paper across and back in front of him in moon-shaped curves. 

Such sanding leaves a scratchy, bad sur- 
face. The sand-i)aper should always be 
pushed straight forward and pulled straight 
back. Great care must be taken when cross 
and straight grain pieces come together — 
as, for example, the corners of a picture 
frame — that the stroke be not carried over 
from the straight to the cross grain. 

To make a round edge on a i^iece of ^"^"'^ 

~ i nai)ei 

wood, or to round a box corner, as in Fig. 

126a, page 82, shape it as nearly round as 

possible with the plane, then hold it in the 

vise and draw a piece of sand-paper back and forth across the edge, 

as in Fig. 181. The final sanding, however, should l)e done with the 

grain, as before stated. 

Much more might be said about sand-papering. More elaboi-atc 
blocks for holding the paper are often made, and many other devices are 
often resorted to. But a little experience will serve to call attention 
to the foregoing fact as well as to suggest many additional ones. 




papermj 

round 

edges. 



Fig. 180— Sand-Paper Held on Block 



120 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Selection of Finishing Materials 



Necessary 
steps in 
wood fin- 
ishing. 




Fig. i8i— Rounding an Edge with Sand-Paper 



AMicn the surfac(3 of the wood is in proper condition to receive the 
stains and varnishes, the selection of these materials is a matter of 
considerable importance. Suitable material can be selected only 
when the workman knows all the surrounding conditions of use. It 
will, therefore, be possible to give 
only a few general principles of wood 
finishing, and the wood-worker must 
make the application to the work 
in hand. A general statement of 
the steps in wood finishing may be 
made as follows: 

1. Preparation of the wood to 
receive the finish. 

2. Decide color of finish, and if 

it is not to be the original color of the wood, select suitable stains or 
colors and apply to the wood. 

3. Note carefully the texture of the wood. If the fibres are close 
together and the pores are so small that they cannot be seen with the 
unaided eye, then the final finish may be applied at once. If, however, 
the fibres are coarse and the pores are large, it will be necessary to fill 
them with some substance which will make them level with the surface 
of the wood and prevent the finishing material from being absorbed 
into the wood. This method of closing the pores is called wood 
filling. 

4. The application of the final finishing materials. 

The first step in the process of wood finishing given above has 
been considered, and, as was stated, it belongs pro]ierly to the work 
of the cabinet maker; but inasmuch as this step includes the place 
where the cabinet maker lets go and the finishing begins, the subject 
has been given a middle place. 



WOOD FINISHING 121 

Wood Staining and Coloring 

The second step in the process of wood finishing, that of staining 
and coloring, is one that has recently taken on great variety, and many 
very beautiful tones and shades have been produced. On the other 
hand, almost anything painted, smeared, or daubed over the surface 
of the wood will change the appearance, and some one can always be 
found who will call it beautiful. The object of the best finishers is, ^^^^^1°^^ 
however, to bring out the natural beauty of the wood rather than finishers. 
to add mere color as striking effect. To do this the coloring matter 
must be as nearly transparent as is possible to make it. Nearly every 
color manufacturer has a special make of colors prepared ready for 
use which are claimed to possess all the virtues and none of the faults 
of such materials. In general, however, coloring materials may be 
classified as follows: 

1. Oil stains — that is, color pigments dissolved in oil: linseed 
oil, benzine, naphtha, and turpentine, etc. 

2. Spirit stains— that is, colors, generally aniline, dissolved in 
spirits, usually alcohol. 

3. Water stains — that is, colors of any kind dissolved in water. 

Oil Stains 

Oil stains made of pigments dissolved or ground in linseed-oil are 
more like paints than like stains. They are easily made and easily 
applied to the wood. They do not raise the grain of the wood, as do 
the spirit or water stains. There are, however, several objections to objections 
them. The first and great objection is that they are so opaque that stains. 
they cover the natural beauty of the wood. Another objection is that 
they do not penetrate the wood deeply and any scratching or marring 
of the surface reveals the unstained wood beneath. Any defacement 
is very hard to remove. About the only remedy is to remove all the 



122 MANUAL TRAIXINd FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

(iiiisli fntiii ( lie suii'ncc and i-('!iiiisli ; l)u( cn'cii llicii in I lie end we have 
tlu' same opaijuc colorin*;' toi' the wood, 
vohitihoii Stains made of the Hdit vohitile oils, such as naphtha, benzine, 

stains. " ' . 

etc., are ahiiost wholly different from those made from the heavy oils. 
They s])i-ead over the sui-face easily, adhere to the wood, penetrate 
deeply without raising the grain, and are very transparent if wiped of^' 
with a cloth or a piece of waste while the stain is still wet. 

Spirit Stains 

Spirit stains are usually made of aniline color dissolved in alcohol. 
They are easily made. All that is necessary is to mix the required 
color in alcohol until the desired shade is obtained. The spirit stains 
are easily applied, are transparent, and penetrate the wood deeply. 
But on the whole they are so little better than the water stains that it 
does not pay to use them, because of the difference in cost, which is 
the difference between the cost of alcohol and water. Spirit stains are 
applied the same as are the water stains. 

Water Stains 

Objections Water stains have the great disadvantage of raising the grain more 

sSs.""' than any of the others. This requires additional sand-papering to 

bring the surface of the wood back into condition to receive the final 

finishing materials. This additional sanding, however, is not lost, for 

it brings out the grain and enhances the beauty of the wood. The 

opening of the pores makes it possible for the filler to enter deeper and 

get a better hold on the wood. So the one disadvantage becomes an 

advantage to the final finish. 

Afivan- Water stains are transparent, penetrate the wood deeply, and are 

water ycry inexpcusive. Added to these facts the ease with which they are 

made and used, we have a very desirable article, one that the beginner 



WOOD FINISHING 123 

may experiment with in a way that the cost of other stains would pro- 
hibit in most cases. However, water stains are not held in general 
favor by professional finishers. 

Water stains are made of both aniline colors and from colors and Anaune 

mi 1 • • •!• • colors. 

dyes which are not anihnes. The one great objection to amlme stams 
has been that they fade quickly. This objection is now largely over- 
come, partly by improvement in the colors themselves, and partly by 

adding to them a fixing material called a mordant — that is, a material Amor- 

1 • 1-111 '^'""• 

which seeks to unite both with- the coloring matter and with the wood, 

or, chemically speaking, has an affinity for both, or, as the dictionary 

says, makes the color bite the wood. The alkalies and acids are most 

used as mordants. 

The objection to the iDigment colors is that thev are opaque, and, pigment 

" . . colors. 

with the one exception, that of Vandyke brcjwn,* they have in the main 
given way to the aniline stains. Vandyke brown is such a beautiful 
transparent brown that it answers every purpose for a brown color in 
every shade. 

W^ater stains may be applied with a cloth or swab, because the to apply 
mordant used with the stain will destroy a brush in time. It is, how- stains. 
ever, much more easily applied with a brush, and, as a cheap one does 
just as well as an expensive one, it is well to use the brush. The stain 
should be applied quickly, the only requirement being that the surface 
be entirely covered. Before the stain has time to dry the surplus must 
be wiped off with cloth or waste and the surface rubbed till the color 
is uniform. If the color is too light, put on two, three, or even more 
coats until dark enough. If too dark, a damp cloth rubbed over the 
surface will take up some of the color. 

The same stain applied to two different kinds of wood, or even to 
■ two samples of the same kind of wood, will not produce the same effect. Make a 

'- \ sample 

Consequently the beginner should finish a satisfactory saiiij^le of the finish- 

* Vandyke brown is a bituminous earth. It is mined mostly in Germany, tliough .some 
comes from Belgium and Holland. It is washed free from dirt and is ready for use. 



124 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

wood before attempting to apply the finish to the whole article. The 
beginner should not be easily discouraged, as it may, and probably will, 
take several attempts to get the required results, but anything which 
is worth having is worth working for. When the required results have 
been obtained with even one process the rest are comparatively easy, 
for we shall then know what to look for. We should always remember 
the finish may l^e the crowning glory of a good piece of construction or 
the utter ruin of the same piece. 

No attempt is made here to give a complete list of stains. It is 
believed that a few standard colors is all that a school should carry 
in stock, and if some pupils want other colors let them provide them 
for themselves. From the stand-point of economy, the teacher should 
mix his own water stains. Another good reason for so doing is that if 
the stains are made in the shop there is not that air of mystery which 
always surrounds a commercial product. 

Uses of the Different Kinds of Stains 

In general, it may be said that the heavy oil stains may be used 
on woods which have little or no natural beauty, as in cases where it 
is desirable to protect the wood, rather than to bring out the beauty. 

Volatile oil stains, spirit stains, and water stains are used when 
color only is wanted. They in no way protect the wood. 

A Few Formulae for Making Stains 

BROWN 

Vandyke brown — 2 pounds. 

Caustic potash or caustic soda or concentrated l3^e — 2 ounces. 
Water — 2 gallons. 

Boil until reduced onc'-half in volume. This makes a concen- 
trated solution, but it may be dihited by adding water to it when 



WOOD FINISHING 125 

used. It is a very useful stain and one that works well in the hands of 
a novice. The color may be shaded from a mere hint of brown to 
almost a black. 

BLACK 

Nigrocine — any amount. 

Bichromate of potash dissolved in water. 

Add the bichromate until there is no trace of blue left in the 
mixture. Then dilute with water to the required shade of black. 

To prepare the bichromate for use, pulverize the crystals, place 
them in water, always having undissolved crystals in the bottom of the 
dish. Let stand at least twenty-four hours. Shake occasionally so 
that as much as is possible of the bichromate will dissolve. It is 
best always to keep such a solution on hand. 

Mix the nigrocine in a small amount of the bichromate solution 
until all lumps are dissolved; then add the remainder. This makes 
a good stain, with a wide range of shades of black. 

BLACK 

Extract of logwood — 1 pound. 
Bichromate of potash crystals — 5 ounces. 
Water — 1 gallon. 

Boil to one-half the volume. This will make almost an ebony 
black. Add water to get the lighter shades. 

DARK OR FOREST GREEN 

Add a very small amount of aniline green to the desired amount of 
the above logwood black. 

MOSS GREEN 

Aniline green dissolved in water. (Soft or distilled water is best.) 



12G lAIANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

aiaiio(;anv stains (1'X)h all kinds of wood) 

Bismarck brown — dissolved in hot soft or distilled water until 
the desired color is obtained. 

The stain given above will cover nearly the whole range of the so- 
called mission stains. The materials are very common and are inex- 
pensive; they can l^e obtained from any large paint dealer or ordered 
through any druggist or merchant who deals in paints and oils. 

TO darken mahogany 



CAU- 
TION. 



liny oil 
stains 
n-iifly 
mixffl. 



Color of 
filler. 



Covpfinff 
stains 
with var- 
nish. 



To give mahogany a rich, dark tone, rub it with a diluted solution 
of caustic soda, caustic potash, or concentrated lye. It takes several 
minutes for the color change to take place, as it is caused by a chemical 
action on the wood. The solution must be very dilute or too dark 
a color will be obtained. Apply to wood with a swab and wipe off 
with a cloth. 

Caution. — Great care should he taken in handling the stronger alka- 
lies spoken of above. Do not get the solution on the hands; it will 
decompose the skin and the nails and make the hands very sore; and 
it is a rank poison. Bottles or dishes containing the solution should he 
marked "Poison.'^ 

If only a small amount of stain is to be used, or if oil stains are 
wanted, it is probably best to buy the ready-mixed stains, for it is not 
easy to make oil stains or to get the best materials. 

It will not be necessary to use a colored filler with any of the stains, 
the formula) of which are given above, for the filler will take up enough 
of the stain to color itself. 

The black and the lirown stains given above may be varnished with 
shellac varnish for the first coat. But the green and the mahogany 
stain should first be covered with a thin coat of linseed-oil, or some 
oil varnish, for they are so soluble in alcohol that the color picks up 



WOOD FINISHING 



12" 



on the brush to such an extent that a few (Uppings will so color the 
varnish as to spoil it. 

Staining may also be done by adding coloring matter to the filler, 
l)ut in general this is. not as satisfactory as staining before the filling 
is done. 



FUMING 

Very beautiful colors may be obtained on some woods by placing 
them in a tight room or box in which are placed several open cUshes 
of ammonia. Mahogany, oak, and chestnut take on an especially 
beautiful color, which may be waxed or filled and varnished as for 
other stains. 

Sand-Papering After Staining 

It is best to allow all stains to dry at least twenty-four hours before 
sanding down the fibres raised by them, and this is especially true 
with the water stains. When 
the stains are first applied the 
fibres are up out of their 
natural position, but at the end 
of a day the water has evapo- 
rated, the surface is dry, the 
fibres have settled back to a 
normal position, and the extra 
sanding only tends to bring 
out the grain. Sanding over a 
stain should be done with fine 
paper, about No. ^, for most 
cabinet surfaces. 

Sand-paper should not be 
held over the sand-paper block for sanding either the stain coat or the 
final varnish. While the surface of the wood has been planed, scraped, 



Time to 

sand- 

papcT. 




Fig. 182 —Sand-Papering Stain or Varnish Coat 



HoldiiiK 
the sand- 
paper. 



128 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

and sand-papered before the finish was appHed, and is supposed to l)e 
in prime condition, tliere are always slightly raised places which will be 
rubbed through if the block is used, for it will hold the sand-paper out 
of the low places and catch the high ones, thus rubbing the finish ofT 
in spots. 
Protecting The paper should be cut in small pieces and folded three or four 

tlR- corners . 

and edges, tuiics, SO that the edgcs will be straight and stiff. This will make the 
paper hold up square into the corners and over the edges, and if held 
as shown in Fig. 182 the flexibility of the hand will allow the paper 
to follow evenly the exact contour of the surface. The stained sur- 
face should be rubbed perfectly smooth. The color will be somewhat 
rubbed out, but it can be renewed after the filler has been applied. 

Wood Filling 

As stated before, if the fibres of the wood are coarse and open, as 
in oak, or if the pores are open, as in mahogany, then the wood must 
be filled — that is, some substance must be rubbed into the pores and 
Object of between the fibres to make the surface level. If filling is not done^ the 
varnish will draw back into the pores and openings and will pile up on 
the closed spots, giving the work a blotchy, pitted surface. The only 
way to remove such blemishes is to sand-paper the high spots and add 
varnish until the low places are even, a process which is very expensive 
both in material and labor. For a long time, however, this was the 
only way known to finishers, but some one finally thought of first 
putting some substance into the pores then adding the varnish. Vari- 
Materiais ous pastcs and llqulds are now used as fillers, among which are com- 
ing fiikrs. pounds made with corn-starch, whiting, plaster of Paris, and silex. 
Corn-starch is a vegetable compound, but does not set hard enough and 
is also likely to decompose after a time. Whiting and plaster of Paris 
Silex. set like chalk, are porous, and do not hold to the wood well. Silex is 
at the present time the king of materials for the body of filler mixtures. 



WOOD FINISHING 129 

Silex is a name given to a group of rocks, some, but not all, of which 
may be ground into small, irregular granules. When mixed with the 
ingredients given below, these needle-like particles penetrate deeply 
into the pores of the wood and the mixture becomes almost as hard as 
stone, thus making a hard surface over which to apply any final finish. 
If silex cannot be obtained it is better to buy a filler mixed ready to Test of 
be used. To test silex, put a little in a drop of oil and rub it over a 
piece of glass. It should feel decidedly gritty. If possible, it is best 
for a teacher to mix his own filler, for there is not only some financial 
gain, but also the gain of knowing what is being used. Moreover the 
pupil is given a chance to learn the careful preparation of the 
materials. 

Formula for Silex Filler 

Light turpentine japan — 2 parts. 
Linseed-oil — 1 part. 

Measure carefully and put these ingredients together, add silex, 
a little at a time, being careful to mix thoroughly as each part is added 
(thorough mixing makes a good filler). Add silex until the mixture is 
of the consistency of a good, thick paste ; then add a small amount of some ex- 

., . Mi/^ii-fi • r ^ • ^ periment- 

japan varnish or turpentme until the nller is or the consistency or thick ing neces- 
paint. A little experimenting will be necessary at first. If the filler 
dries out granular, more oil should be added; if it takes too long to 
dry, add more japan varnish. If color is needed, add a little of the coloring 
color used in the stain, though of course the color must be thoroughly 
mixed in a small amount of oil before it is added to the bulk of the 
liquid or there will be lumps of color. 

Filler is usually applied with a brush, but on small work it may be cau- 
rubbed over the surface with a cloth or a piece of waste. (All cloth 
or ivaste used for wiping filler or in any other mixture of linseed- 
oil should be carefully gathered up and burned, for it will take fire 



130 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

in a few hours because of a chemical action called spontaneous com- 
hustion.) 
wipiui.' oil Filler .should l)e allowed to .stand on the wood until the wet, glossy 

appearance takes on a dead, dry look. This usually takes from twenty 
to thirty minutes, according to the amount of linseed-oil used in the 
mixture — the more oil the longer the drying necessary. When fairly 
well dried the suiplus filler must be rubbed off the surface. The 
older workman can do a good piece of work with excelsior, but the 
beginner shoukl use only cloth or waste. In wiping off the filler, 
the w^iping should be done as much as possible across the grain. Rub 
lightly at first, then as the filler gets harder and the cloth more satu- 
rated with filler considerable pressure may be used, thus forcing the 
filler into the pores. The final rubbing should be done carefully and 
with a clean cloth. Great care must be taken to leave the pores and 
the spaces between the fibres even with the surface with little if any 
ToreiiiovL- filler left on the surface. A small, fiat stick should be used to take 
comers. the filler out of the corners. No filler should be left overnight without 
Time for first having been rubbed down. After being properly rubbed the 
dry. filler should stand from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, or until 

the oil has hardened. If the final finishing materials are placed over 
the filler before it is thoroughly dry, the filler will dry out in time, will 
shrink in c hying, and thus cause the varnish to crack. The little fine 
cracks so often seen over the surface of finished wood is caused In' the 
drying of the filler after the varnish was applied. 

san.1- The final operation of filling is to rub the surface well with fine sand- 

papering . ,, ir-ii TCI"' 1 1 

the filler, paper m order to remove all surplus filler. It this is not done the 
finish will be cloudy, and if any considerable amount of filler is left on 
the surface it will cleave ofi', leaving an unsightly hole in the finish. 
It will be seen from the above that filling is a vital part of good wood 
finishing. 

stainiiiir • Wlulc tlic last nihbitiu- and sanding of tlic fillci" coat is being done 

over tile 

iii'er. the stain is likely to be riil)betl, streaked, and j)resent a thin, washed- 



WOOD FINISHING 131 

out aj)i)oai"uii('('. The fouiKlation of t\\v slain is left, however, and 
the even, pure tone may be Ijroug'lit l)a('k by bmshinji; stain ()\'er the 
surface and quickly wiping off with a cloth. 

\Mth the final stain coat thorouohly dried, which will take at least 
twenty-four hours, we are ready for the last step in the finish, that of 
varnishing. 

Varnishing 

The author is well aware of the fact that varnishing cannot be 
learned from a book. It seems simple, indeed, to take a brush and 
cover the surface of a piece of wood with a liquid, but varnishing is more 
than a mere smearing of the surface. It is the final step in the process 
of making a useful, permanentlv beautiful article, and requires much 
care and patience. \''arnish is defined as a resinous material dissolved Definition 

,..,,.,, , 1 ■ -n i' °^ varnish. 

in a liquid, which, when exposed to the air, will evaporate or become 
hard by chemical action, leaving the resincjus material spread in an 
even coat on the surface over which it has been painted. This defini- 
tion sounds simple, but in reality the composition of most varnishes is 
very complicated, and a great variety of materials and j^rocesses are 
used, the detailed discussion of which is not within the scope of a book 
like this. To those who wish to go further into the subject a good 
encyclopaedia and a list of reference books in subject-matter will 
give valuable aid. 

While, as stated above, the composition of varnish is complicated, 
there are, however, a few fundamental facts which even an occasional 
user of varnish must know if he does any successful varnishing. 

Varnishes may be divided into two general classes: 1. Oil var- on and 

• 1 o CI • -x • 1 spirit var- 

nishes. 2. bpirit varnishes. nishes. 

Oil varnishes are further divided into two distinct groups: 1. 
Fat-oil varnishes. 2. Volatile-oil varnishes. 

The fat-oil varnishes are made l:)y dissolving a resin in an oil which 
hardens by chemical action when exposed to the air. The body of 



132 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Varnish 
materials. 



Tliinners. 



Volatile 
oils. 



Shellac- 
varnish. 



the oil nMiiains in the varnish; it adds materially to the lustre and 
helps to set or fix the varnish. 

Linseed-oil is the fat oil most used in the manufacture of varnish. The 
best resins are ambef , anime, copals, sandarac, resin, and kauri. The prop- 
erties of these materials may be learned by referring to an encyclopaedia. 

Varnishes made with fat oils and resins are too thick to spread 
well and must be thinned with some thin liquid. They dry slowly and 
materials are added to make them dry more rapidly. The process of 
manufacturing the fat-oil varnishes is so complicated that the finisher 
always buys them mixed ready for use. 

The volatile-oil varnishes are made with a resin or gum dissolved 
in an oil which evaporates when exposed to the air and in so doing does 
not change the chemical composition. These oils do not add to the 
varnish but merely act as solvents for the resin and gum. Turpentine 
is classed with the volatile oils; it also has some of the properties of 
the fat oils in that it evaporates and leaves a resinous residue which 
helps to fix the varnish. The oils which belong exclusively to the 
volatile oils and are much used in the manufacture of varnish are the 
coal oils — naphtha and benzine. There are others, but these will 
suffice to call attention to the type. 

Spirit varnishes are made by dissolving gum, resin, or lacs in some 
kind of spirits. The spirits act merely as a solvent; they evaporate 
very quickly leaving the dissolved substance as a varnish coat. No 
thinners or driers are needed other than the body and the solvent. 
The spirit varnishes are easy to mix, and the finisher often mixes his 
own varnish. There is but one kind of spirit varnish that is in common 
use and that is shellac varnish. 

Shellac varnish is made by dissolving lac in alcohol. Lac is a 
resinous material which exudes from the sides of a very small scale 
insect that lives mostly on the banyan-tree. Shellac is put on the 
market, after being cleaned, in thin flakes and slabs. The varnish has 
a good base and is much used. 



WOOD FINISHING 133 

A general statement of the various kinds of varnish may be made General 

facts about 
as follows: varnish. 

The oil varnishes are bought mixed ready for use. The fat var- 
nishes are likely to become thick and need thinning before they can be 
used. They are heavy and hard to apply, though they are usually the 
best and most expensive kind. 

Volatile-oil varnishes are also bought ready to use. If left in an 
open dish the solvent evaporates very quickly. 

The spirit varnish, shellac, may be mixed by the finisher to good 
advantage. It also evaporates rapidly from an open vessel. 

There are many substitutes for the better varnish materials, and substi- 
the only way for an inexperienced person to get good material is to get besfvar- 
it from a trustworthy dealer and be willing to pay a fair price for teriais. 
an article that is marked pure and bears the name of a reliable manu- 
facturer. 

Commercial packages are usually marked with full directions how 
to use the varnish which they contain. 

What has been said with regard to oils, spirits, resins, etc., is in- 
tended merely to put the amateur finisher on his guard so that he may 
appreciate the fact that varnishing is a serious business. With this 
understanding, we can now assume that the workman is supplied with 
a varnish which is in good condition to be applied to a piece of wood- 
work. 

Brushes 

The next thing the finisher must do is to select a suitable brush, and 
as the selection of a brush depends entirely upon the use to be made of 
it, only a few general rules can be given. Brushes are made of both 
bristles and camel's hair. Either kind may be used as a varnish brush, Kind and 

size of 

though the camel's hair is best for fancy work. Round, oval, or flat brushes, 
brushes in all sizes may be obtained. The size of the brush should be 
in proportion to the size of the work, but it should be large enough to 



134 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

enable the workman to c()\'er the surface quickly so that an even coat 

may be applied before the varnish begins to dry. Do not try to be too 

economical in purchasing brushes. A good brush will do better work 

c:iTc of and last longer than a cheap one. When through with the brush wash 

brushes. ..... i • i • , 

It ui the thmner used m the varnish you have been using and wrap it 
in an oiled paj^er. Do not try to use a brush that sheds bristles or 
hair on your work. Clean shellac brushes in borax water; or common 
baking soda will do if borax is not at hand. 

Applying the Varnish 

^^'ith the siu'face of the wood well filled and the filler well dried, we 
are ready to apply the varnish. If the varnish coat is. to have a perfect 
surface the wood must be thonjughly sealed, so that it will not be 
possible for the varnish to draw back into the pores. The filler will 
not do this if a slow-drying varnish is used. For that reason one or 
two coats of shellac are applied to the wood first. This varnish 
(described on page 132) sets in a few minutes and is thoroughly hard in 
six or seven hours. It has a good, hard gum and will seal the wood 
against either water or varnish. All dust must be wiped from a pieee 
of wood that is to be varnished. 
Applying Shcllac must be kept in an earthen or dass dish, and is aiDiDlied with 

shellac ... . ' . 

varnish. an oval brush vaiying in size according to the extent of the surface to 
be varnished. A wire should be drawn across the top of the shellac 
dish so that the surplus shellac wiped off the Inrush will fall back into 
the can. (See shellac dish, finishing outfit, page 141.) Care should 
be taken not to have the shellac too thick or it will not spread well. 
The brush should not contain too much shellac, and the attempt 
should not be made to cover too much surface with one filling of 
the brush. Shellac di-ies so quickly that the first brushing is all 
that is possible; to do, for subsequent ])rushing will only deface the 
first coat. 



WOOD FINISHING 



135 



Do All Varnishing Parallel to the Grain 

The laps should be made along a straight line parallel to the grain, 
as in Fig. 183, rather than across the grain, as in Fig. 183(;. The 
dark parts show where the shellac has been applied. Shellac that 
feels dry to the hand is not always dr}-. Three or four hours at Time for 

" . shellac to 

least should elapse between coats, and, if rubbnig or sandnig is to be dry. 

done, the shellac should dry at least six or seven hours, and even a 

longer time is better. A slight fuzz or roughness usually comes up sand- 

on the wood when the first coat of shellac is applied. 

be sanded very lightly with No. 00 or No. sand-])aper, care being 

taken not to rub through 

the shellac. 



That should shellac "^ 




Fig. 183 — Correct Way to Apply Varnish 




Applying Fat Oil and Other 
Slow-Drying Varnishes 

As stated above, all dust 
must be removed from the 
surfaces before the varnish is 
applied. This should be 
done with a damp cloth so 
that the dust will not be left 
flying in the air. The room in 
which the varnishing is done must also l^e entirely closed and free from 
dirt, for any dust which settles on soft varnish sticks to it, and as it 
usually takes several hours for the heavy oil varnishes to dry, a small 
amount of dust in the air will cause serious trouble in that amount 
of time. The temperature should not drop below 65° F., for if the 
varnish is chilled before it is clry it will not harden. 

Varnish should be applied much the same as shellac spoken of 
alcove. The stroke of the brush should always be parallel to the 



183a — Incorrect Way to Apply Varnish 



136 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

grain of the wood. In the case of the slow-drying varnishes, surplus 
varnish can be removed by added brushing, provided that brushing be 
Blisters in clouc at oncc. If too mucli vamisli is put on in one coat it will blister 
and dry thicker in some spots than in others. One should also be 
careful not to spread the varnish too thin. 

Watch all edges. When the brush is dragged over an edge it is 
likely to shed considerable varnish, which will drizzle down and dry in 
unsightly streaks that will be hard to remove. If the varnish is not 
to be rubbed; two or three coats will make a good surface. 



Sanding and Rubbing 

After all the filling and shellacking it is seldom possible to have 

a perfect surface when the final varnish coats are finished. When 

sufficient varnish has been applied so that there is little danger of 

Sand- rubbing through, it will be necessary to sand-paper until all the 

varnish. pits ui the vamish are removed. The sanding is done with the 

paper folded and held in the hand, as in rubbing the stain coat. 

(Page 127, Fig. 182.) Great care must be taken not to rub too hard 

over the edge or at the ends of the stroke, for if the varnish is 

rubbed through it will cause an unsightly spot which will be difficult 

to remove. 

steel wool. Steel Wool may be used as a substitute for sand-paper. It is 

composed of fine steel threads merely rolled together in a bundle and 

held in the hand as is the sand-paper. Steel wool is sold in one-pound 

packages. It cuts much faster than the sand-paper and docs not have 

the same tendency to scratch. It is, indeed, very efficient in its work, 

but, since it cuts faster, more care must be taken not to rub through 

the varnish. The one ol)jcction to it is that an occasional steel sliver 

gets into the hand. 

Rubbing When the surface is level and all the scratches and defects are out 

ston?' the final finish is put on by rubbing with pumice-stone and oil. The 



WOOD FINISHING 137 

oil most in use for rubbing is especially prepared for that purpose, Rubbing 
though linseed-oil may be used. If a dull finish is desired, the rubbing 
is done with pumice-stone and water. For most work the oil is put in 
one dish and the pumice-stone in another ; the rubbing pad, which con- Rubbing 
sists of a special felt pad or a tight roll of burlap, is first dipped into the 
oil, then into the pumice-stone, and is rubbed over the surface the 
same as sand-paper. The condition of the surface may be seen any to see 

1 •• 11 111- ,•/ T J iii condition 

tmie by wipmg a small spot and lookmg at it at an angle toward the of finish, 
light. When the required finish is obtained the oil should be carefully 
removed at once or it will soften the varnish. The chief requisite of 
good rubbing is extreme care. The following is a general statement 
of the things to do and those not to do : 

1. Be sure that the varnish is thoroughly drv before doing any General 

,,. T- (• • ^ ^ •!! statement 

sanding or rubbing. It is a waste oi time and material to hurry a 
finish by not giving it time to harden. The varnish should be hard 
enough to resist the action of the thumb nail before it is hard enough 
to rub. 

2. Always rub with the grain. 

3. Be careful not to rub through the varnish on the edges and 
corners. 

4. To see condition of finish, remove the oil from a spot and look 
at it at an angle toward the light. 

5. When finish is done, clean the oil or water from the surface 
quickly so that it will not injure the varnish. 

6. Burn all waste or rags with oil on them, as they will take fire by 
chemical action. 

This will complete a standard finish, one which will add both 
beauty and protection to the finished article. Ability to apply such 
a finish will mean ability to apply any finish. 

Many do not think the polished surface beautiful and have sacrificed 
protection for mere beauty, which only lasts for a short time ; though 
there are some dull finishes that do very well on some kinds of work. 



13S MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON 8CII00LS 

Uiik'ss s|)('('i;il pi'ovisions nic iimdc il is mIihosI iiii])()ssil)lr ((» uso 
slow-diyinii; \-Mriiisli for school work, chiclly hocausc the dust settles 
into it too much. 

Shellac Finish 

The wood is put into couihtion hy ])laning, scraping, sanding, and 
if necessary it is stained and filled exactly as for the standard var- 
nish gi\'en al)()ve. Three or four coats of shellac are applied (one 
each day), and the sanding and rubbing are done the same as the 
standard varnish, though as a rule the rubbing is only sufficient to 
produce a smooth surface without a polish. 

Egg-Shell Finish 

The dull egg-shell finish is nuide by simply allowing the last coat 
of the shellac ^'arnish as applied above to remain without sanding or 
rubbing. 

While the shellac is not as good as some of the other varnishes for 
the final finish, it has the advantage of drying so quickly that dust 
will not stick to it in ten or fifteen minutes after it is applied. This is, 
indeed, a great feature where the work is to be done in the open shop. 
The shellac finishes are much more durable, sanitary, and protect the 
wood much better than the wax finishes given below. If any of 
the commercial finishes are used, the directions on the packages should 
be followed. 

Wax Finish 

The only really good thing about wax finish is that it is easily ap- 
plied. On some kinds of wood, notal)ly oak, it gives a beautiful dull 
tone. The beauty, however, is very fleeting, for it will not withstand 
water or wear. It does not protect the wood for it does not harden well, 
and much of the dust which settles on it is rubbed into the wax, causing 



WOOD FINISHING 139 

tlie surface to become grimy in a very short time. \\'hen all is said, 
there is Httle about a wax finish to recommend it. It does not prevent 
the stain from coming off in any fabric which may be placed upon it. 
As a floor finish, it is used a great deal because the worn spots are easily 
refinished. The wax is composed of beeswax dissolved in turpentine, composi- 
Ihe turpentme acts merely as a solvent or a thmner, and only a sui- wax. 
ficient amount is added to make the wax thin enough to spread. 
Twenty per cent, of resin is sometimes used to make the wax harder. 

Hot turpentine is a better solvent for the wax than cold, but one 
must be extremely careful that the turpentine does not take 'fire, as 
it is very inflammal)le and when hot gives off a gas which is also apt 
to take fire. The heating should always be done in a double boiler, 
like a glue-pot or a rice cooker. 

The wax is applied bv brushing o\'ei- the surface with a stiff brush, to apply 

_ _ _ wax finish. 

or it may be rubbed on with a cloth; in any case the rubbing should 
be continued until the wax is well rubbed in and all the surplus is off 
the surface. It will not be necessary to fill waxed surfaces, for the 
wax will work into the wood. Wax may be used on some of the first 
problems, but do not deceive 3^ourself int(3 thinking that you have a 
real finish. 

Painting 

As stated at the beginning of the chapter on finishing, painting 
covers the wood and does not attempt to show any of its natural 
beauty. The chief object is to protect the wood, and the only beauty 
is in the color of the paint used. The best paints are made with a coinposi- 
compound of lead or zinc as a base, linseed-oil as a solvent, turpentine pai'nt! 
as a thinner, and various compounds as driers. The different colors 
are made by adding different-colored i)igments which have been ground 
in oil, or if the dry color is used it is best to work it thoroughly with 
oil. This will avoid color lumps in the paint. Some of the very best 
coach paints have a little varnish mixed with them, for it gives the 



140 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Applying 
paint. 



Time for 
paint to 
dry. 



Care of 
brushes. 



paint a hard, glossy surface which is very durable. The surface of 
the wood does not need to be in as good condition for painting as it 
does for varnishing. Filling is not necessary, though all nail heads 
s^hould be covered and all nail holes should be filled with putty. 
The putty is pressed into the holes with a flat putty-knife made es- 
pecially for that purpose. It is done after the first or what is called 
the prime coat of paint has been applied, for it will not stick if put 
on the bare wood. It is well to remember this when puttying in 
window glass. 

Paint is applied with a brush the size of which varies according to 
the size of the surface to be covered. The brushing should be done 
parallel to the grain, and care should be taken to make the laps even 
and the coat of paint of uniform thickness. Do not try to carry too 
much paint in the brush at one time, for it will run out, waste the paint, 
and make a slovenly piece of work. Water should not come in contact 
with paint before the paint has time to dry. Each coat of paint should 
have ample time to dry before the next is added. If the coats are 
piled one on the other too rapidly, or the paint is too thick when 

applied, blisters or bubbles will 
appear on the surface as the 
paint dries. Brushes should al- 
ways be washed in turpentine 
and all paint carefully removed 
before they are put away. 

There are so many cheap, worth- 
less paints on the market that one 
should always be careful to buy 
of a reliable ])aint dealer and be 
willing to pay a I'easonable price 
for an article marked pure lead or 
zinc i^aint and stamped with the 
Fig. 184-Box for Finishing Materials Hamc of a reliable manufacturer. 




WOOD FINISHING 141 

For outside work that must withstand water there is nothing better 
than a good white-lead paint. 

Care of Finishing Materials and the Finishing Outfit 

One of the greatest difficulties about finishing in the school or 
home shop is the care and handling of the finishing materials. It is 
seldom possible to have a special room for such work, and in many 
cases there is not sufficient space for a special table. Even if such 
places are provided they are likely to become mere gathering places 
which lead to general confusion. Brushes will be changed from 
one color to the other, materials will be wasted, and the teacher will 
not have as good an opportunity to watch the work as he will if each 
pupil worked alone at his own desk. In an effort to solve these per- 
plexing problems in a large high-school, an outfit has been provided 
for each teacher having finishing work in charge. This outfit con- 
sists of a box 14'' wide, 20" long, and 14'' high, outside dimensions. Finishing 
(See Fig. 184.) It is made of f" poplar. The top is 2" deep on 
the inside and is provided with loops for holding brushes, etc. 
Fig. 184a is a frame placed in the 
bottom of the box for holding the 
ffiiishing dishes, which consist of 
one can of shellac, one can of brown 
stain, one can of black stain, one can 
of wood filler, one bottle of bichro- 
mate of potash crystals in water " pig. i84a-Tray for rVnishing box 

ready for mixing black stain. 

A few other special colors are kept in a general stock and are 
made up when needed. The black and the brown give such a 
wide range of tones that the special colors are seldom used. The 
student is not allowed to handle the general stock of materials. 
He is given what he needs for the particular- finish and is held 



outflt. 




142 MANUAL TRALNING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

responsible for its careful use. The fiiiisliing is all done at the indi- 
vidual bench, which makes it easy for the teacher to place the 
responsibility for careless work. This plan has proved very suecess- 




Fig. 184b— Varnish Dish* 

ful. The object is to give a general idea of wood finishing with 
ability to handle a few standard materials. 

♦Varnish Dish flesignod by Mr. Paul W. Covert, head of the Manual Training Depart- 
ment of the Indianapolis Manual Training High School. 



CHAPTER VII 
SOME ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN 

In the preceding chapters a number of facts about the manipulation 
of tools and materials have been given. The problems considered 
were ready-made and fully stated, and the work was purely mechani- 
cal. It is time now to give some attention to the statement of new 
and original problems. 

The ''EncyclopsecUaBritannica" says: ^'The object of construction object of 

construe- 

is to adapt, and combine fit materials in such a manner that they shall tion. 
retain in use the disposition assigned to them." From this statement 
of the object of construction, the object of Constructive Design may be object of 
stated as the selecting of the fit materials and designating the com- uv^fdesign. 
bination which will meet the requirements of construction. 

As one example of constructive design which will embody the ideas 
of construction and fitness stated above, let us consider the develop- 
ment of a chair. 

The requirements of a chair are : 

1. Strength to hold us up when we sit on it. 

2. To furnish a comfortable place to sit. 

3. It must be in keeping with the surroundings. 

If we are living in a rough, temporary logging camp and wish a 
place for the men to sit at the dining table, a bench, as in Fig. 185, 
will answer all requirements. It is strong, is reasonably comfortable 
for a short sitting, and is in keeping with the makeshift surroundings. 
If, however, a settler living in the neighborhood of such a camp would 
make a bench or chair for a general living or eating room, some care 

143 



144 ]\IANUAL TRAINING FOR COIMMON SCHOOLS 

in const iTR'tioii, us in Fig. 180, would \)v more in ivceping with the 
l)ci'mancnt home. But even this would not bo as comfortable or 
inviting for an evening lounge before a glowing fireplace as would a 




Fig. 185— Chair Suitable for Temporary 
Camp 



Fig. 186 — Chair or Bench Suitable for Permanent 
Pioneer Home 



chair with a back, as shown in Fig. 187. If a sheepskin, tanned 
with the wool on, were thrown over the seat and back of such a 
chair it would compete in comfort and strength with the fancy leather- 
cushioned Morris-chair shown in Fig. 188, or with any other chair for 





Fig. 187— Easy Chair for 
Pioneer Home 



Fig. 188— Modern Morris-Chair 



SOME ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN 145 



that matter. Yet one would not want to place a rough chair covered 
with sheepskin in a well-arranged country or city home where even a 
few of the modern furnishings are used. It is easy to see why there is 
something about the Morris-chair that will always give it a place in 
refined surroundings, a place which cannot be given to any of the other 
chairs shown. One w^ould not be likely to choose a straight-backed 
chair, like the one shown in Fig. 189, in which to sit for an evening to 

read a favorite book. But the same chair at a 

writing-desk or at a dining-table, where the back 

is not used for the support of the body, would 

answer the purpose much better than would 

the Morris-chair. 

Considered by itself, the chair shown in Fig. 

190 is not at all pleasing. The 

back is too short, or, in other 

words, it is out of proportion 

with the other parts of the chair. 

Or, as the artist would say, the 

chair is out of harmony with 
itself. If the same chair is placed in a crowded 
restaurant where space is a very important considera- 
tion, and it can be seen pushed under the table, as in 
Fig. 191, the short back does not seem so nmch out of 
place. The lack of proportion in the individual piece is largely over- 
come by the requirements of service. No position and no service 
consideration could, however, overcome such a lack of symmetry as 
is shown in the chair, Fig. 192. The round and the square legs on the 
same chair and the showy turned brace in combination with the 
square ones are serious defects. For strength and comfort the chair 
might do as well as the one shown in Fig. 189, but the elaborate con- 
struction and the lack of harmony in the parts would make the chair 
seem old and out of place in a logging camp or a permanent home. 




Fig. 189— Straight-Back 
Dining-Room Chair 




Fig. 190 — Low-Back 
Chair for Special Use 



146 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Fig. 191 — Chairs Placed Under Table to 
Save Space 



It is thus seen that a lack of fitness as well as a lack of beauty or 
good workmanship excludes an article from service. What is meant by- 
fitness would be clearly shown if we should put the bench made for 
a logging camp (Fig. 185) into an elaborate home, or the Morris- 
chair, with its leather cushions, in 
a blacksmith-shop. If we try to 
make a chair merely an object of 
beauty to be looked at and not 
used, then again we have missed 
the object of chair construction 
and cannot find a suitable place 
for the product. 

What has been said about the 
construction of a chair ma}' be said 
about any other construction. 
Between the extreme ideas of service, as is shown in the bench (Fig. 
185), and the attempt at over-ornamentation, as in Fig. 192, there 
is a great field of design which seeks within the 
limits of service to make the product as beautiful 
and pleasing as the surroundings will warrant. 

What the Designer Must Know if He is to Get 
the Best and Most Economical Production 

The designer must know the use to be made 
of the article he is to design and if possible the 
j^lace in which it is to be used. He must know 
the available materials. There is no general list 
of construction materials which can be obtained 
everywhere. The good designer or the careful 
workman, (hough he is to make but a few pieces, will acquaint 
liiuLself with the materials carried in stock by the dealers in his 




Fig. 192— Chair Out of 
Harmony with Itself and 
All Surroundings 



SOME ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN 147 

locality. Special materials or even standard materials which must 
be ordered special, cost much more than materials ready in stock. 
The designer should know how to combine and join materials both for 
strength and for beauty. He should know the tools to be used and the 
ability of the workman who is to use them. Otherwise he will be 
likely to demand too much or too little. The beginner will learn much 
about tools and combinations by referring to the chapters under those 
headings. 

Facts Which the Designer Should Know 

The standard height of the seat of a chair of the dining-room 
type is 18^'. Rockers and chairs with deep seats are made lower. 

The standard height of a writing-desk, office desk, or library table 
is 30''. 

The standard height of a work-bench intended for the use of an 
adult is 34''. 

The standard height of a piano bench is 20". 

Tabourets are usually made 18" high, though the height varies 
according to the use lo be made of them. 

Sheet music is about 12" x 14". A music cabinet should be at least 
one inch wider and deeper on the inside. 

Bookcases are from 10" to 12" deep inside. 

An umbrella-holder is from 24" to 26" high, from the bottom of 
the pan to the top of the cross-rails. 

The weak point in a chair is where the seat rails are fastened 
to the back legs. 

The distance between the shelves of a magazine stand should be 
greatest at the bottom, and should decrease by three-quarters of an 
inch between each pair of shelves from the bottom toward the top. 

Hall trees are usually made from 70" to 72" high over all, the hooks 
being from four to eight inches lower. 



CHAPTER VTII 
SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 

Part I. For Seventh and Eighth Grades 

The object of the first work is to l^ecome familiar with the common 
tools — to learn how to adjust them, how to use them to the best 
advantage, and to gain some skill in their use so that the student can 
gradually do better and more efficient work. As stated in the first 
chapter, the most simple problem the student can have is shaping 
a piece of wood to three dimensions. To do this he must know the 
following : 

1. How to measure with a ruler or scale. 

2. How to saw to a line. 

3. How to plane. 

4. How to use the try square as a straight-edge and as a square. 

5. How to use the gauge. 

(). How to use the knife and try square for making lines. 

The operations in the proper order irill he (is folloirs: 

1. Make working face and mark it. 

2. Make joint edge and mark it. 

3. Use gauge to make lines parallel to a marked face. 

4. Measure length. 

5. Draw lines across the grain witli knife and square. 

6. Saw close to line. 

7. End planing. 

148 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 149 

8. Planing third side. 

9. Planing fourth side. 

A hasty glance at this outline or through the first chapter will 
show that, although the problem is a simple one, it involves a number 
of tools and operations all of which are new. To make it easier we 
will first do just a part of this problem. 

Problem No. i 

Poj^lar or Pine: 1 piece Y ^ ^" ^ -■!"; made to thickness and 
width only. 

Read the first three pages of the first chapter. Note carefully 
what is said on page 3 about writing an order for a piece of lumber. 

The piece for the first problem is cut for us I" x SV' x 24V', miu order 

. „ .,..,, ; - ' for stock. 

SO we can omit for a tmie what is said about the saw on pages 
4, 5, 6, and 7. 

The first thing to do is to measure the stock to make sure that selecting 

1*11 • stock. 

we have enough material, and to examine it carefully to see if there 
are any defects, such as cracks, knots, etc., which will make it unfit 
for use. 

The first work to be done on the piece is to plane a flat, true working 
surface, which is called a working face. (Read "Planing the First or 
Working Face," pages 11 to 16 inclusive.) 

Select the best surface, hold it up to the eye, and sight across it 
to see if it is straight and flat. If it is not flat, plane the places which 
are high and which cause the unevenness. The teacher will select 
the plane to do this piece, but in time the pupil must learn to select 
his own plane. 

To learn how to put the parts of the plane together, the names Parts of 

. . . plane. 

of the parts, their use, and how to adjust them, read '^\djusting 
Plane," pages 13, 14, and 15. 

To plane the piece to dimensions, follow the general directions 
given on page 16 to Entl Planing, page 20. 



know. 



150 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

In general, the })iece to be planed should be held against the 
bench stop on top of the bench, and the whole stock or base of the 
plane should rest on the piece that is being planed. 

What we Fwm the text and in making the first piece tve should learn : 

should 

1 . To write the order for the material. 

2. To measure the material to see if we have enough. 

3. To examine the material to make sure that it has no serious 
defects. 

4. To make the working face and joint edge and test them with 
the square. 

5. To set the gauge and to draw lines with it. 

6. To make the. third and fourth faces. 
We should become very familiar with these tools and operations 

and with the methods of doing the work, for we shall use them in every 
piece of wood- work that we do. 



Problem No. 2 

Using the To get practice with the gauge, take the piece just made and 

draw lines I" apart on the working face parallel to the joint edge. 
Note carefully what has been said about the gauge and its use on 
pages 17, 18, and 19. Check each line as directed on page 19, Fig. 37. 

Be sure that the linos are imiform and accurate to the extreme 
ends of the piece. 

When the working face is lined, turn the piece over and make 
the same lines on the face opposite. T(^st each line as before and see 
if the first lining cannot be improved upcjn. 



gauge. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



151 



Problem No. 3 

Use the same piece as for Problems Nos. 1 and 2. Make eight lines Making 
entirely around the piece I" apart, eight f apart, and eight ^^ apart, the grain.' 
These lines are to be made with the knife and square across the width 
of the piece. 

Read carefully what is said about the rule, the knife, and the 
square on pages 21, 22 and 23. 

Remember : When testing for squareness with the square always 
keep the head or beam against a marked face. In making the 
lines as directed above, great care should be taken to make the lines 
check accurately around the piece. 



Problem No. 4 

Use the same piece as in making Problems Nos. 1, 2, and 3. The 
piece will now be marked off or laid out as in Fig. 193. The problem 
is to saw off the blocks marked out in the last piece. 

Place the piece to be sawed upon the bench-hook and with the 
back saw saw off the blocks. Read carefully what it said about the 
back saw and its use on pages 39, 40, 41 and 42. 

The blocks should be sawed, leaving one-half of the line on the splitting 
large piece. This is called splitting the line with the saw. Fig. 194 saw. 
shows a saw cut made 
part way across the 
piece, showing the re- 
lation of the saw cut 
and the hne. 

After each cut test the end of the piece with the square, both Test after 
from the working face and the joint edge. If the cut has not been 
made straight, note the error carefully and make a great effort to 
avoid it on the next cut'. 




Fig. 193 — Problem No. 4 Marked Out Ready for Sawing 



152 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



LanRuaKC 

of tllC Itll'- 

cluuiif. 




Fig. 194 Showing Saw Cut Splitting the Line 



Keep all the blocks numbered and note the improvement as the 

work progresses. 

In the first cutting with the saw you will often find that you saw 

off the line in the same direction every 
time. It is best, therefore, to start 
each cut on the corner between the 
marked face and the joint edge, so 
that the test will show where the 
error is being made. A known fault 
is more than half corrected. Do not 
be content until you can measure, 

])lane, make lines with the gauge and knife, and saw to the line with 

the back saw. 

Problem No. 5 

Problem No. 5 is to make a bench-hook similar to the one used in 
Problem No. 4 or to the one shown in the picture. (Fig. 195.) 

The statement 
of three dimensions 
of each part of the 
hook will not be 
sufficient, for such 
a statement will 
not tell how the 
parts ar(! fastened 
together. We can- 
not m e a s u r e a 
drawing as shown 

in Fig. 195 because we are looking at the piece at an angle and the 
lines appear shortened. Th(» mechanic, liowever, makes use of a 
woi'd and picture language which may ))e used to state any mechan- 
ical i)roblem. We will use that language to state the problem of the 




Fig. 195 — Bench-Hook 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



153 




beiicli-h(x)k, hut to make it easier we will separate the ])arts, as in 
Fig. 195o, aiul consider each piece b)^ itself. 

Let us take any l)art, say the base piece (.1, l\. l[)oa), and look 
straight down on 
the top of it. We 
shall see what is 
shown in .1, Fig. 
1956. All the lines 
we can see will be 
shown in their true 
length, because we 
are looking straight 
at them. We could 
measure such a 
drawing crosswise 
and get the width, 

and lengthwise and ^'^- '^Sa-Parts of the Sench-Hook 

get the length. The holes for the 
fastening pins are also shown in their 
true positions. The width and length 
of the piece and the position of the 
pinholes are not all we want, for we 
must also know the thickness. 

We cannot, however, get the thick- 
ness from the top view — we must look 
at an end or an edge. If we turn the 
piece so as to see the left edge we 
shall see what is shown in B, Fig. 
1956. The dotted lines C and D 
show where the pinholes would be 
if we could see them. 
i95b-Top^and^E^ge^ View of Base of Inasuiuch as B Is the drawlug of 




Fig. 



154 iMANUAL TRAlNINd FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Measuring 
the draw- 



Dimen- 
sions on 
drawing. 



Reading 
the draw- 
ing. 



= «»! 



tli(> loft edge of the l)ase, we will place it at the left side and join it 
to the base with the dotted lines E and F, so that we shall always 
know the relation between the two drawings. 

We could now measure the view B crosswise to get the thick- 
ness, and lengthwise to get the length. The width and the position of 
the pinholes are obtained from A. That is, by measuring both views 
we could get all the information desired. But if every one who 
used a drawing were compelled to measure it, it would take too much 

time and lead to a great many 
mistakes. For these reasons the one 
who is making a drawing writes the di- 
mensions on it, as is shown in Fig. 195c. 
Fig. 195c is a complete mechanical 
drawing of the base-board of the bench- 
hook. To write an order for the stock 
or material in the base we must find 
the thickness, width, and length on the 
drawing. As said before, the thickness 
will be found on an end or an edge 
view. Look at the upper end of the 
edge drawing . (Fig. 195c.) We find f 
marked in a line which has an arrow- 
head on each end. This means that 
it is f between the points of the ar- 
row heads. The dotted lines leading 
up to the arrows-heads mean that the distance between the arrow- 
heads is iho distance between the points from which the dotted 
lines start. 

Read carefully: '' Dimensions on Mechanical Drawings," pages 33 
and 34. 

At the end of the drawing we find Ff written within a dash line 
which also ends in arrow-heads, the dotted lines at the points of 



i< 5 


>* 


o 


Q-\¥^ 




1¥ 




JT- 



Fig. 195c — Complete Meciianical Drawing 
of the Base-Board for Bench-Hoolt. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



155 



which come to the edges of the board. This means that 5" is the 
width of the board. 

In the same way the 10" written in the hne at the side is the 
length. Find the arrow-heads and the dotted hnes which lead up to 
them the same as for thickness and width. 

The order for the stock or material in the base-board will be 
written as follows : 1 piece ^' x b" x 10'^ The position of the pinholes 
is shown by the figures, arrow-heads, etc., and may be easily read 
from the drawing. 

Fig. 195<i gives a complete mechanical drawing of the cross-pieces 

and the fastening pins, the remaining _ , ^ , 

parts of the bench-hooks. These draw- 
ings are the same as for the base piece, 
except that the right end is shown in- 
stead of the left, and because of that, 
the end view is to the right of the top 
view. 

From the drawings we can read the 
dimensions and write the order for the 
entire stock as follows: 

1 piece Y X ^\" X 5''— From A, Fig. 195d 

1 piece I" X lY X 41''— From B, Fig. 195(i 

4 pieces Y dowel rod 1|" long— From C, Figs. 195c? and 195c. 

1 piece f X 5" x 10"— From Fig. 195c 

Such an order gives us a very definite problem. The dimensions 

given in the order are, however, the finished dimensions. We must 

allow some extra material to be cut away in making a finish. From 

the above order for the cross-pieces we learn that they are the same 

thickness and width, and together make a piece only 9|" long. It will 

be easier for us to work these two iDieces to dimensions in one piece, combina- 
tion of 
and cut them to length, for it will save handling the tools for at least similar 

" pieces. 

one whole operation. 





■-,* A. 
1 


^ 44" -> 




i^s'^ 




^ 

1 


1 \^-( 


~\ g'pOWELFOP C 

"chanical Drawings j)e(;ail 
1 for Bench-Hook o^^^^^^ 


Fig. igsd — Complete M< 
of Cross-Pieces and Pii 



156 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Mill order. 



Lilies for 
end cuts. 



After groiij)ino; the first two pieces and 
finish, the mill order for stock will be: 

1 piece 1" X H" x 10'' 
1 piece I'' dowel rod 8'' 



allowing 



material for 



1 piece I X 



5^ X 10 




1956 — Cross-Pieces of Bench-Hook, Planned and Laid 
Out Ready for Sawing to Lengths 



To make the first piece of the bench-hook ivill he merely a review of 
the first problem. (Read carefully the steps in making the first }:)roblem 
on pages 149 and 150.) When tlie four faces are planed, lay out the 

pieces as shown in Fig. 
195e. 

The lines A B C D 
are made entirely around 
the piece with the knife 
and square, the same 
as in the fourth ])roblem. 
Saw to these lines, leav- 
ing one-half the line on the piece you wish to keep. The two lines 
{B and C) in the centre are made because it is usually not possible, 
when sawing free hand, to saw both sides of the cut smooth and square 
until we have had considerable practice in using the saw. If sawed 
carefully the ends will not need any further finish. 

The stock for the base piece will be rough sawed and machine planed 
to i" X 5|'' X lOi''. This allows ^/ in thickness, i" in width, and ^'' in 
length for finishing. 
Plane the work- 
ing face and joint 
edge and mark 
them as in any 
other piece. Then 
lay out with gauge, 
knife, and square, 

1 • ,1 • lii Fig losf — Base Piece of Bench-Hook Laid Out Ready 

markmg the Wltlth ^ "" for End Planing 




A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 157 

and length, us is sliown in Fig. 195/. The end phming should be d(jne Kmi 
before the third side is finished. (Read carefully what is said about End 
Planing on pages 21, 22, 23, and 24.) Before planing to the end lines it 
will be best to saw off all but a very small amount of the surplus stock. 
Until we are able to use the saw accurately, it will be best for us to make 
a second line very close to the first and saw to the centre of the second 
line the same as in making the other saw cuts. The saw cut should 
be made so close to the end line that three or four strokes of a sharp 
plane will finish the end, making it smooth and to the line. Use 
either a block plane or a regular smooth plane. (See Figs. 7 and la, 
page 8.) 

When the ends are planed, finish the third and fourth faces. Putting on 

cross- 

This will finish the cross-pieces and the base to the required dimensions, pieces. 

The dowel pins are bought in long pieces ready made to diameter 
and need only to be cut to the required length. 

When the stock is all finished to the required dimensions, mark 
the centre of the pinholes on the cross-pieces. 'The dimensions will 
be found in A and B of Fig. 195c?. Lay a cross-piece into position 
on the base-board and clamp both in the vise so that the centre mark 
for one of the holes is above the vise jaws. With a half-inch bit bore 
a hole entirely through both pieces. Place a block back of the pieces 
in the vise to bore into to prevent splitting as the bit comes through. 
(See Fig. 716, page 56.) (For general information about bits, how to 
tell the size, etc., see pages 105, 106, and 107.) 

x\fter boring the hole and before removing the pieces from the vise, 
place a pin in the hole to hold the pieces in place. Turn the piece in 
the vise and bore the other holes in the same way. 

The space between the end of the short piece and the edge of the 
board is left either to the left or right, according to whether a right or 
left-hand person is to use the hook. 

After the holes are made, remove the pins from the holes, put glue 
on the under side of the cross-pieces and on the pins, then clamp 



158 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



them in place, as is shown in Fig. 195g. The clamp should be left in 

})osition for at least twenty-four hours, when the hook is ready for use. 

In making the bench-hook the new things we have learned are: 

1st. How to state a simple problem by the use of the mechanical 

drawing. 

2nd. End planing. 
3rd. Something 
about boring. 

4th. What the 
dowel pin is and one of 
its uses. 

We have reviewed 
measuring and lining, 
})laning and sawing. 
Select one of the 
problems in the following group for the next exercise. 




Fig. I95g — Cross-Pieces on Bench-Hook Glued 
and Clamped 



Sharpen- 
ing 
tools. 

Screw or 
nail box. 



Detail 
order, 



Group I 

Read carefully what is said about sharpening the plane bit on pages 
12 and 13. Practice oil-stoning the bit, but do not grind it until later. 

Fig. 196 is a nail or screw box for a bench. From the picture we 
can see that the pieces required will be as follows: 

Two side pieces. 

Three cross-pieces. 

One bottom piece. 

From the mechanical drawing of these parts (Fig. 196a) we can get 
the dimensions and write the detail order as follows: 



PINE, POPLAR, OR ANY OTHER SOFT AVOOD 

2 pieces f x 1 1" x 10'' side pieces 

3 pieces f '' x 1 1'' x 3'' cross-pieces 

1 piece f' x 3|" x 10'' bottom piece 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



159 



The side pieces and the cross-pieces are all the same thickness Miuorfier. 
and width, and when combined are only 29'' long. Such a piece is 
not too long to handle easily and we can get the stock in one piece. 
Plane to thickness and 
width, then- cut to length. 

If we make that com- 
bination and allow iV' in 
thickness and ^ in width, 
and y' for every end cut, 
the mill order will be as 
follows : 

1 piece // X 2'' x 30|''. 
Iff 




Fig. 196 — Nail or Screw Box 



1 piece ^\" X Zl" x 10 



To make 
side and 
cross- 
pieces. 



Plane the combined side and cross-pieces to thickness and width. 
Lay out the length by marking entirely around the piece with the 
knife and try square. (See cross-pieces for bench-hook, page 156, 
Fig. 195e.) If the end cuts are made carefully with a sharp back 

saw, it will not be 
necessary to plane the 
ends of the three cross- 
pieces and will take 
but a few strokes of a 
sharp plane to finish 
the ends of the two 
side pieces. Do the 
end planing against a 
block, as shown on 
page 24, Fig. 39??2. 

To make the bot- to make 

^ . bottom 

torn, make the work- piece. 
ing face and joint edge ; 
saw and plane the 




10 



-^: ^ § V 



-^1' 



k- 



ilk 



Fig. 196a — Mechanical Drawing of Nail Box Parts 



ICO MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Assembly 
firawias,'. 



Putting 
the box 
together. 



Sand- 
papering 
the box. 



V r-T^ — 



'Xit 



JJjX. 



\h 






IT 



Fig. 196b — Assembly Drawing of Nail Box 



ciuls to length. (See base-board for bench-hook, page L56, Fig. 195/.) 
After the ends are squared plane tlie bottom to thickness. The 
width may hv left until the bottom is nailed into place on the box. 
Then it is planed even or flush with the sides of the box. 

Fig. 19 06 is the 
mechanical drawing of 
the entire box, show- 
ing how the parts are 
})ut together. Such a 
drawing is called an 
assembly drawing. 

To assemble the 
box, mark with a good, 
sharp pencil the posi- 
tion of the cross-pieces 
on the side pieces. The position of the brads may be located by a 
dot made with the gauge. Careful, uniform nailing will give even a 
rough box a neat, workman-like appearance. 

First nail side and cross-pieces together, using J'' No. 18 brads. 
(See page 68 for l:)rads and how to order them.) When side and 
cross-pieces are nailed, nail one side of bottom. Square side pieces 
with end of l)ottom and nail the other side and the centre, as shown 
in the drawing. (Fig. 1966.) Set the nails below the surface of the 
wood. (See nail set and its uses, page 71.) Plane bottom flush with 
side pieces. Sand-paper the entire outside of the box (see pages 118 
and 119), using No. 1| sand-paper over a block, as shown in Fig. 180, 
page 119. Care should be taken when sand-])apering not to round the 
corners and edges. 

When the box is finished write the name on the inside of one of tlu^ 
end })ieces. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 161 

String Reel 

Fig. 197 is the picture of a string reel that may be used for a kite 
string, a fish line, a chalk line, etc. From the picture we can see that 
the wood required will be as follows: 

Two side pieces. 
Three cross-pieces. 
Two handle pieces. 

From the mechanical drawing of the parts (Fig. 197«) we can get Detau 
the detailed stock order as follows: 

2 pieces f '' x J" x 8'' side pieces 

3 pieces Y ^ I4" ^ '^Y cross-pieces 

2 pieces f '' x f x 1^' handle pieces 

To save handling so _*=*-:=»v miu order. 

many pieces, we can com- 
bine the two side pieces, (^T^T^ 




the three cross-pieces, and VJ--^s4 \^~~^-^=*-^'"^^^^^-^ ^^^ ^ 



the two handles. Making 
this combination, and 

11 • 1 // • i 1 • 1 F'e- 197— String Reel 

allowing iV 11^ thickness, 

~^-" in width, and ^ for every end cut, the mill order will be: 

1 piece -iV X \" x 8^' 



1 piece iV' X If x 10^'' 



2 



1 piece f X f X Z\ 

Plane all pieces to thickness and width. Saw side pieces to length, side pieces. 
leaving one-half the line on the piece you wish to keep. (Note how 
the cross-piece on the bench-hook was laid out. Page 156, Fig. 195e.) 
With the compasses (see page 88, Fig. 133) lay out the round ends, 
saw to the liries with the coping saw, or cut to line with a knife. (For 
the coping saw, see page 98, Fig. 1466.) Sand-paper all surfaces 



162 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Cross- 
pieces. 



Makiii}? 

round 

edges. 



Handle 
pieces. 



with Xo. I5 sand-paper drawn over a block. (For sand-papering, 
see pages 118 and 119.) 

Saw off the centre cross-piece. Before the end cross-pieces are 



-^. ^i" 



r 



5]D 



3i' 



-^ i<z ^ 




!* 4"3f 



j_r(o)-'™ 



Fig. 197a — Detail Drawing of Parts of String Reel 

sawed apart, draw a half-circle on the ends. Plane the corners down 
to this line, as shown in Fig. 197c, then plane the remaining corners to 
the line and finish l\v clamping one end in the vise and drawing a strip 

of sand-paper over 
the edge, as in Fig. 
181, page 120. 

Saw the pieces to 
exact length. It 
will not be necessary 
to i)lane the ends. 
Make a circle on the 
end of the handle 
])iece, plane the 
corners to the circle, 
then i)lane the re- 
PTj I maining corners. 

Finish round with 

Fig. 107b — Assembly Drawing Showing How the Parts of String ,., i ,^ ,,^^„ c ,,,, +„ 

Reel Go Together ^^an( l-JJapei . baW tO 






-I- I 



-^k- 1'^— >|'^ 



JLL 




A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 163 

length, clamp in vise and bore a hole large enough for a No. 12 round- 
head screw. 

Fig. 1976 is a mechanical drawing showing how the parts are put Assembly 

^ o o i- drawing. 

together. If we remember that the lines which 
cannot be seen are shown as dotted lines, the 
drawing will not be hard to understand. 
Use i" No. 17 brads. (See page 68.) 
Fasten the handles on with 21" No. 12 round- 

Fig. 197c — End Cross- -, ■, /oi i-m \ 

Piece Laid Out for hcad scrcws. (bce page 72.) 

Rounding Edges i i • 

When the piece is finished write the name 
carefully on the flat side of the centre cross-piece. 

Problems 

No. 1. Write the detail order for the stock in a box 6" deep, 8Y 
wide, and 12" long, outside dimensions, all the stock to be Y thick. 
The box is to be constructed the same as the nail or screw box (Fig. 
196), with the end pieces set in the same distance from the end of 
box. 

No. 2. ]\Ieasure a window-sash or a screen frame and write a detail 
order for the stock. 

Remember that in the detail order no stock is allowed for finishing. 

Group 2 
The Lap Joint 
Problem No. i 

The first prohlern in this group will be the half lap joint, the picture 
of which is shown in Fig. 40. From the experience we have had with 
reading a mechanical drawing in the first group we can read at once 
the statement of the problem as given in the drawing. 

Begin with ''The Problem of the Lap Joint" stated, page 66, and 
make a lap joint as instructed. Follow closely the method of laying 



161 AfANUAL TRAINING FOR C()I\IM()N SCHOOLS 



Detail and 
assembly 
drawing 
together. 



Special de- 
tail draw- 



Reading 
the draw- 
ing. 



out (lie joint and the use of the tools. (Pji^(>s '3i) to 47, inclusive.) 
St'V(M"aI now tools and ojx'rations arc used in this joint, and it will 
rtMjuii'c careful attention to master tlieni. 

Problem No. 2 

Each member of the class will make a lap-joint frame as in Fig. 198. 
In Group No. 1 we made a drawing of each piece separatel)^ and the 
assembly drawing to show how the pieces were put together. This 
method takes too much time and space, so the mechanic usually 
makes only the assembly drawing and puts in the dimensions of each 
piece, as they occur in the drawing. If any part of a piece is compli- 
cated, the drawling of that part is often set out by itself as is the 
corner of the picture-frame (Fig. 1986), and the detail chmensions of 
the part thus set out are omitted in the assembly drawing. 

The number of parts and figures 
so near together do not need to 
confuse the beginner, and will not 
if' he remembers that the frame is 
made of single pieces of wood, all 
of which have thickness, width, and 
length. 

To read the mechanical draw- 
ing for the picture-frame and write 
the detail order for the material, 
select any piece, say the side strip 
(.1, Fig. 198r/); the thickness will 
l)e found on some part of the draw- 
ing (Fig. 198«), where the end or an 
edge of the side piece is shown, 
as, for example, at the top of the 
edge view we find the thickness to 
be ^'' 

Fig. 198— Lap-joint Picture-Frame ^^ 8 ' 




A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



165 



The width we shall find where a flat side or an end of the 
piece is shown, as at the top of the face view we find If' to be 
the width. 

The length will be found on the face or an edge view. Thus we 
have found the three dimensions of the side strij), and since there are 
two of them the order for them will be : 

2 pieces f x If x 12f 

In the same way find the dimensions and write the order for the 
remaining parts of the frame. In doing this note the arrow points 
and figures carefully to make sure that they mark the desired 
dimensions. 

Write the mill order for stock, allowing material for finishing, miu order. 
and combine the parts to save time in working to dimensions. Do not 
make any combination ... h''^ . 



I !. 



.1 >^i^ 






i.. 



I 



11 



of parts which are 
longer than 30". 

When the materials 
are at hand, plane all 
to thickness and 
width. Lay out and 
cut to length, allowing 
-f on each projecting 
end for finishing, after 
the pieces are put to- 
gether, the same as in 
making the lap joint. 

No end planing 
should be done until 
the parts are put to- 
gether, for the ends of 
all the pieces are either covered or are backed up by some other 
piece so that end planing is made easy. 



End plan- 



Fig. 198a— Mechanical Drawing of Lap-joint Frame 



166 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Corner 
joints. 



Assem- 

l)linK 

frame. 



Bevel 
edges. 



i^f^rts'^ 




Fig. 198b — Detail of Picture-Frame Corner 



Sand- 
Ijapering. 



The lap joint for the corners of the frame is given in the detail 
drawing of the corner (Fig. 1986), and is called an end lap joint. (See 

page 58, Figs. 73 and 73«.) 

Lay out the joints the same as 
part No. 1 of the lap joint, Problem 
No. 1, group 2. (See pages 37, 38, 
and 39.) If the material for the 
joint is cut from the working face in 
the end pieces, it should be cut from 
the opposite face for the side piece. 
(See page 46 for the reason.) Be 
sure to keep all working edges and 
faces marked, and use them as directed in laying out all lines with 
square and gauge. 

Saw to all lines both across and with the grain, leaving one-half 
the line on the part you wish to keep. No chiselling of surfaces should 
be necessary. 

When the parts are made, put a little liquid glue on the joint sur- 
faces and nail together with f' No. 17 brads. 

Glue top strips into position. Use clamps as for bench hook, see 
page 158, Fig. 195y. Let the clamps remain on the pieces at least 
twenty-four hours. When dry, remove clamps and nail the strips 
from the back with V No. 17 brads. This will help hold the glued 
joints. 

To im]:)rove the appearance, cut a small bevel all the way around 
the edge. The bevel is not shown in the mechanical drawing, but 
should be |'' on the face and g" on the edge. (Note what is said on 
page 82 about laying out bevelled and round edges. Lay out the 
bevel -ines with a sharj), hard })encil. Plane to the lines with the 
smooth plane, cutting tlie ends from the edges toward the centre to 
avoid splitting the corners. 

Sand-paper all outside surfaces with sand-paper drawn over a block. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 167 

The lines should be straight, the bevel uniform, and the corners sharp 
and square. 

Finish the frame to match the picture to be put into it. Finish. 

See Chapter VI for wood finishing. 

The picture and the glass are held in place by a thin piece of board 
or pasteboard fastened on the back. 

By slightly modifying this frame it may be made as a print General 

"^ . . . " - . , statement. 

frame, or the same corner jomts may be used on a wmdow-screen 
frame. 

The following problems will furnish further application of the 
principles learned thus far, and will introduce a few new tools and 
operations, which will be explained as they are used. 

Each pupil should do at least two of the smaller problems or one 
of the larger ones, including the shelf, or pupils may choose a problem 
of their own similar to these, provided they make a drawing of each 
part, giving all the necessary dimensions, and one showing how the 
parts are put together, as was done in Group No. 1. 

Begin each problem by writing a detail order for the material or 
stock. 

Write a mill order allowing material for finishing. Group similar 
parts in the mill order when it will aid in getting the stock to the 
required shape. Be sure, however, to add enough material to allow 
for extra cutting. Usually I" for every end cut will be enough. 

Never lose sight of the necessity of doing careful work. 

Lay out all parts and check them in some way before cutting. 

Alwa3'S measure and make lines with the proper tools and in the 
proper way. 

Windmill Made of Soft Wood 

The only new oi)eration is cutting the bevel on the fan pieces. Fan 

^ . piece. 

which will be done after they are planed to dimensions and the middle 
laj) joint made at the centre. As shown l3y the i)icture and the 



168 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Fig. 199 — Windmill Made of any Light, Soft Wood 



mechanical drawing;, the bevel 
is made diagonally across the 
corners, opposite diagonals 
being used on opposite ends 
of each piece. Lay out the 
fan pieces with a sharp pen- 
cil by drawing the lines A A, 
(Fig. 1996) A" each side of 
the corner. Connect these 
lines with a diagonal line 
across the ends. Draw the 
Be sure to use opposite cor- 



lines B B as shown in the drawing. 

ners when laying out the ends of each piece, 

AMien all the lines are laid out, clamp a piece in the vise and saw 
to all the Unes A A, then saw to the lines B B. Finish the sawed 
surface with a chisel and sand-paper. 



U 



e — ^ 



1^'"'' 



r-t 




i^r^ 



EhDVicworKuDPtR 



Fig. 199a Mechanical Drawing of Windmill 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



169 



Assemble the parts as shown in the drawing 

Make the length of 
the standard to meet 
requirements. 

Wall Rack 

Make the wall rack of 
soft wood, but choose the 
kind of wood and the 
^pln/^fc finish to meet the re- 

f'or 'sawing quirementS of SCrvice. Fig. 200- Wall Rack 





I4i 



J 

i t 



WZr 



lap View 
1 65:" 



TV 



TKOMT VIEW 
















Q 

0: 





_ _ _ — _ _ ^-; 

;©• 


11 










®; 
®! 


■ - 8" " 








A^ ,. 










_^L 



-^ 

-101 

■-^^ 

— V-, 



END VIEW 



I 2 3 4-36 

SCALE IN mCHES 
Fig. 200a — Mechanical Drawing of Wall Rack 



170 :\IANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



iMakiii 
curves on 



Tilt' only new feature is the curves nuule at the to]j of the end 

sidVp]e"ces. piccBS. The curves are made after the end pieces have been cut to 

dimensions and arc merely to give the rack a more pleasing appearance. 

Such curves must be laid and cut out carefully or they will not 

look well. 

First, lay the curve out on a ])iece of thick |)aper or card-board. 
Cut it out and trace with a pencil on the end pieces. Saw to the line 
with a coping saw. (See page 98.) Finish curves with spokeshave 
(see page 101), and with sandpaper drawn over a block. Assemble the 
parts as shown in the drawing. 



Doll Cradle 

The cradle is made of soft wood and finished with the mahogany 
stain (see page 126) to make it bright and attractive. This cradle is 



Bevel. 




Fig. 201— Doll Cradle 



made for a doll twelve inches long. You may change the dimensions 
to fit the doll that is to use it. 

The new feature in the doll cradle is the use of the bevel to lay 
out the slanting lines on the end pieces. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



171 



Order the stock. Plane the end and side pieces to the largest 
dimensions. Use the compasses (see page 88) to lay out all the curves 
indicated in the drawing. 

Lay out the lines- on one of the head pieces as shown in Fig. 2016. Head 

piece. 

With the beam of the bevel (see page 87) on B, set the blade to the 

line A. Then, 
r 15:?:- Jj*l^v&.4-' with the bevel 

'^^ "Ml ^ised the same as 






a 



I RAP 



/l^ — 



<T> 



1 



t^la^fi'^ 



Hi 




I a square, draw all 

I the other slanting 

-j^ lines on the head 

I and foot pieces. 

Saw to the 

curved lines with 

the coping saw 

(see page 98) and 

to the slanting line 

with the back saw. 

Fasten side and end pieces 

together as incHcated; then care- 



->u> 



"-^ 



bling 
parts. 



^ 



jTi KAP 



Fig. 20 1 a — Mechanical Drawing of Doll Cradle 



Fig. 20 lb — Bevel Laid Out on End Piece 



fully plane the bottom edge of the side pieces square with the bot- 
tom of the end joieces. 

Nail the bottom to the sides and screw through the bottom to 
hold the rockers. 



172 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



TF 



TT 




Fig. 202 — Tool or Knife Tray 



12" 






'IT 



\' i; 



Top View 

Fig. 2023 — Mechanical Drawing of Knife Tray 

V 

-K j ! ! : 1 

ii:\ ~. — 



■ ErsD view. 



^_± 



-X 



A- ^ 



V'^p 


1 




■ ■ 1 N^ 

1 


\ 


^ 

V 


I^ 









Fig. 202b — Detail of Centre Piece of Tray 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 173 

Tool or Knife Tray 

The drawings of the tool or knife tray (Figs. 202, 202a, and 
2025) give a full statement of the problem. The dimensions given 
are for a knife tray. If 3'()u want to make a tool tra}', copy 
the drawings and change the thickness of the wood and the other 
dimensions so as to make it strong and large enough to meet your 
requirements. 

The corner curves are marked with compasses and cut out with 
the coping saw the same as the other curves. 

To cut the hand hole in the centre-piece, mark the position of the 
hole with the gauge and compasses. Bore holes with a V auger bit to 
make the end curves. Saw to the side lines with the compass saw 
(see page 98). Finish the edges and break the sharp corners of the 
hole with sand-paper, as in Fig. 181, page 120. 

Assemble the box as shown in the drawing (Fig. 202r/) and finish 
to meet the requirements. 

The Shelf 

All pupils should design and make a shelf. A shelf is usually object of 
made to occupy some special place and to hold some particular 
object or objects. The mechanical requirements are that the shelf 
be large enough to fill the space and strong enough to hold the 
objects to be placed upon it. 

Fig. 203 shows a shelf which meets the mechanical requirements, 
except, perhaps, that the square corners of the bracket — that is, the 
pieces which support the shelf — are in the way. In that case the 
bracket could be cut off, as in Fig. 203«. In both cases we have a 
strong shelf which can be made to any reasonable size; but should 
we care to give them a better place than in the barn or shed ? 

There is, indeed, something lacking when we consider either use and 
shelf for a place in the home. In other words, they meet all of the 



174 MANUAL TRAININC FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Bracket 
curve. 



Bevelled 
edges. 



Various 
curves and 
their uses. 



requireiiients of a shelf but do not meet the r('({uin'iiieiits of a 
piece of furnitiiro. 

To make the shelf meet the reqiurements of a piece of furniture 

we must not take away any 
of its usefulness. 

Suppose we make the 
change in the l^racket as sug- 




gested in Fig 2036 or 



as 



Fig. 203 — Shelf Which Meets All Mechanical Requirements 




shown in the mechanical 
drawing. (Fig. 203c.) The 
curves seem to add strength 
to th(^ bracket as compared 
to the straight lines in Fig. 
2()3rt. 

The dotted lines in the end 
view of the mechanical draw- 
ing (Fig. 203c) suggest curves 
which might be made in place 
of the one used. 

The slight bevel on the 
lower edge of the shelf and the 
small curve in the back-board 
seem to add something pleas- 
ing that is not found in the 
shar}), unbroken lines of the 
other shelves. Thus, in mak- 
ing a piece of furniture out of 
a mere shelf we have added 
lines and curves which make 
it pleasing to look at and at 
the same time have not taken away any of the reciuirements. 
The ends of the side pieces of the string reel (Fig. 197) are rounded 



Fig. 203a Shelf with Corners of Bracket Cut Off to 
Save Space 




Fig. 203b -Shelf Suitable for a Piece of Furniture 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



175 



to keep the string from catching. The ends of the cradle (Fig. 201) 
are rounded to break the sharp corners and allow for added height. 
The handle hole in the centre piece of the tool box (Fig. 202) has a 
mechanical value as a handle, and for that reason does not ap]iear 




Fig. 203c — Mechanical Drawing of Shelf, without Dimensions 

out of place or ill-shaped. The curves and bevel on the shelf give General 

. . statement. 

variety to the straight lines. In general, it may ])e said that, if 
added hues or curves are a true decoration, we must feel that to 
remove them would take something away from the usefulness of the 
object. 

The problem is to make a shelf to meet your own requirements. The prob- 
Make a drawing of all the parts; put in all dimensions and order 
the stock, as in the previous problems. 



Problems 

Lumber is sold by the square foot. A board one inch thick and 
one foot square contains a board foot of lumber. 

To get the number of board feet in any piece of lumber, multiply 
the thickness expressed in inches by the width and length expressed 
in feet. 



170 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

Problem No. i 

How many board feet of lumber in a board 1" x 6'' x 12'? Rewrit- 
ing the problem and expressing the width — 6'' — in feet, we have V x 
I' X 12', Multiplying the thickness, width, and length, we have 6 
board feet as the answer. 

Problem No. 2 

How many board feet in a board 2" x 4'' x 10'? Reducing the 
width to feet, we have 2" x ^' x 10'. Multiplying the thickness, width, 
and length, we have 6§ board feet as the answer. 

Problem No. 3 

How many board feet in a board ^" x 7" x 9'? 

Note. — It is becoming a general custom to quote prices of lumber 
less than an inch in thickness by the square feet of surface. In that 
case the square feet obtained by multiplying the width in feet by the 
length in feet will be the number of board feet required. 

Problem No. 4 

How many board feet of lumber in the following bill of lumber? 
3 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' 
2 pieces 1" x 5" x 12' 
5 pieces |" x 3" x 9' 

Problem No. 5 

Measure the floor in a room at home or at school and figure the 
cost of the lumber if the flooring costs $00.00 per 1,000 feet. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



177 



Group No. 3 

The first problem in the group will be to make the through mortise Mortise 
and tenon joint given in Chapter III, pages 48 to 56, inclusive. joint. 

All pupils are to make this joint. 

Follow carefully each step as it is given. Note particularly the 
method of laying out the joint. 

Cut the mortise with a chisel, but note the use of the auger bit for 
removing the surplus stock from the mortise. 

This type of joint is used in all manner of construction and is very 
important, consequently it should be given close attention. 



Clothes Hanger and Tie Rack 
Problem No. 2 

Make of hard or soft wood and finish to meet the requirements of 
service. 

Each pupil should make either the clothes hanger or the tie rack. 




DcTAiL or Hook. 
Fig. 204 — Mechanical Drawing of Clothes Hanger 



The mechanical drawings give a full statement of the problems, state- 
Write the detail and mill orders for materials. Figure the amount of problem. 



178 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



General 
ilirectioiis 



lumber and the cost at the market price in j^our locality. Lay out 
and cut the mortise before the edges are bevelled, in order to have a 
square edge to work from. The mortise should be laid out on both 



^iis 



^ 



Jiit 



?[ ^ 



— i J i- 



i-_- 



Scale: pans 




-1- 


1" 

-i 



Detajl or Projecting At^m 
Fig. 205 — Mechanical Drawing of Tie Rack 



sides of the base piece. (Note how the mortise was laid out on both 
sides of the piece on pages 49 and 50.) Make all lines for bevelled 
edges with a pencil. (See page 82.) 

Remember that to look well all bevelled edges must be made 



straight and uniform. 



A Set of Balances 



Make of either hard or soft wood and finish to protect the wood. 

The set of balances, the mechanical drawing of which is given 
(Fig. 206), is not a toy but a useful instrument which may be used 
in a school laboratory. If reasonable care is taken in making them 
the balances will weigh accurately to a centigram. 

The. scale pans are made of the pressed tops of tin cans such as 
are used on paint cans. 

The wire by which the pans are suspended is oi-dinaiy galvanized 
iron wire about the size of that used for a telephone. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



179 




180 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



Counter 
poise. 



Pivot- 
bearing. 



The screw hooks can be obtained at any hardware store. 

The nuts on the ends of the balance arm are for a counter poise, 
and by turning them in and out the pointer may be made to stand at 
the zero point. Any ordinary nut will do. 

Cut the wood round, almost to the size of the hole in the nut. 
Screw the nut on. It will cut its own thread. 

Fig. 206a is a detail drawing of the i)ivot-bearing for the balances. 




f 



Fig. 2o6a — Detail of Pivot-Bearing for Balances 

After sawing out the j^lace (B, Fig. 20G«) for the bearing post, take a 
stroke of the saw where the cuts meet at C to make the corner sharp. 

Cut out a piece of tin as wide as the balance arm (ordinary house 
shears will cut tin) and of the required length. Fold the tin as at D, 
Fig. 206a, and flatten the fold with a hammer but not enough to break 
the metal. Spread out the two parts of th(> tin as in E. The sliarj) 
fold will make a crease in which the metal bearing (F) will fit. 

Fis a piece of steel (a broken knife blade will do) driven into a saw cut. 

All other details are i>iven in the drawings. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



181 



Umbrella Stand 

To make the umbrella stand (Fig. 207) order materials as usual. 
Make all parts to the required dimensions, being careful to make and 
mark a working face and joint edges on all pieces. 

Lay out the mortises on the working face and joint edges, for Toiay 
those faces are made especially square and 





Fig. 207 — Umbrella Stand 



To lay out 
tenons. 



accurate. 

First locate and make the end lines of all 
the mortises; then set the gauge and make the 
lines on one side of all the mortises. Add the 
thickness of the mortise to the first setting of the 
gauge and draw all the lines for the second side. 
Be sure to keep the head of the gauge on the 
working face and the joint edge. Locate and 
draw the shoulder line of all the tenons. 

Make all the lines on one side of all the tenons. 
Reset the gauge and make all the lines on the other side. Remove 
stock for mortises with auger bit. (See pages 55 and 56.) Use a Tomake 

, . • •! 1 1 • -r-i- "^ 1 mortises. 

bit stop Similar to the one shown m lig. 1/1, page 109, or make a 
stop of a block of wood. 

When all mortises are bored, cut to the line with a chisel as in 
making the through mortise and tenon joint. (See page 54, Figs. 70h, 
70i, and 70/.) 

Be sure to make the sides of the mortises straight. Test by 
standing the edge of the chisel against the sides and note if the 
chisel is square with the face of the piece. 

When the mortises are all made, make the tenons. Saw the lines to make 

tenons. 

with the grain first; the reason for this will be evident. Then saw 
the shoulder lines. If care is taken in sawing, very little chiselling 
will be necessary. 

Assemble the parts as shown in the drawing. (Hue two of the 



182 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



ki|'>k- 



t 



CO 



X. 



m 



SloO 



lOi' 



r 



-1 











3' 




> 1 !y 




1 




^ts^ 





W- Is ^ 



:^i-- 



e^' 



t*- I ^ -H 

Fig. 207b — Detail of Joint A, Umbrella Stand. Lower 
Corner Identical with Exception of Tenon 2 J" wide 
and 3" cross piece. 



fi^^ 



LtT 






.__.J^.,.-_;? II II 



-1: ^ 



•^J 



._L 



Fig. 207a — Mechanical Drawing of Umbrella Stand 




Fig. 207c— How to Lay Out and Make Pan 
for Umbrella Stand 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 183 

sides together first; when in the clamp, test to make sure they are 
square. The next day glue the cross-pieces between these two sides 
and test for squareness again. Clean of! all surplus glue with a damp f^^/Xl'"^ 
cloth or waste before it hardens. When the glue is hard, put in the ^'"^' 
bottom, as shown in the drawing. Scrape, sand-paper, and finish to 
meet the requirements of the wood and service. Make a shallow How to 

^ make metal 

metal pan for the bottom, as shown in Fig. 207c. Take a fiat piece ^^''- 
of copper, zinc, or galvanized iron, lay out the size of the bottom with 
a knife or pencil, as shown in A, Fig. 207c. Slit the corners A B C D. 
Clamp a block on both sides of the metal and bend up the edges, as 
in B, Fig. 207c. Bend the metal at the corners around the sides and 
solder to hold any water that may run from a wet umbrella. 

Group No. 4 

The problems should be fully stated, the materials ordered, and 
the costs figured, the same as in the preceding groups. 

The pupil should begin to grind his own chisels, and when skil- j^g"' ^""'^" 
ful enough to do good chisel grinding he may begin to grind his 
plane bits. (See '^ Grinding Plane Bit," pages 12 and 13, Figs. 15 to 20.) 

Learn the difference between the crosscut and the rip saw and J;'iecTsl''ws. 
the reasons for the difference. (See pages 5 and 6.) 

Each pupil should make at least one article in the group from 
rough lumber, doing all the rough sawing and planing. (See page 4, 
Figs. 1 and la, for laying out rough dimensions, and pages 6 and 7, 
Figs. 6 and 6a, for starting the rip and the crosscut saw.) 

Tabouret 

In making either of the tabourets (Figs. 208 and 209), or any sub- • 
stitute, we must take into consideration the plant which is to be placed 
upon it and the place which it is to occupy in the room. Neither of 



184 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




12" 




"B", 



s-to '^ --- ) A 



^i 



(X) 



SIfl--- 



T 

1. 



>-.. 



(D 



in 



_y 



Fig. 2o8a — How to Lay Out an Octagon 




Fig. 2o8 — Tabouret 



Fig. 2o8b Detail of Cross Lap Joints 
"A" and "B" Fig. 208 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



185 



the tabourets given would be suitable 
for a wide-spreading plant, for the 
plant and stand would be top-heavy. 

Scales 

The scales (Fig, 210) are a useful 
article and will weigh accurately to 
five grams. The pivot-bearing is 
made the same as the j^ivot-bear- 
ing for the balances (Fig. 206fl). The 
sliding weight on the arm is a block 
of wood which weighs one gram. It 
slides on a galvanized iron wire about 
the size of a telephone wire. The 
weight pan (B) is made from a tin 
can top, which is also hung on a small 
galvanized-iron wire. 

A block of lead is fastened to the 
bottom of the scale pan to make a 
counter poise for the long arm. All 
other details are given in the drawing. 




f 

"Tioo e> 



General 
informa- 
tion. 



_-Y- 



Fig. 209 — Tabouret 



Saw Horse 

The saw horse (Fig. 211) may be made to meet almost any require- 
ment. The mechanical drawing is a complete statement of the horse 
as it is given. 

The Loom 

Figs. 212, 212a, 2125, 212c, etc., give the drawings of a small loom. Good ciass 
This is a very efficient loom and is a good problem for a group of 
pupils to make for a class that is studying textiles. 



186 ■ MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



187 



The assembly drawings seem rather comphcated, but a glance at 
the detailed parts will show that while there are a number of pieces 
they are very simple and will build up rapidly. 

The slats (.1) on the heddle (Fig. 212c) are made straight on the Heddie. 
edges and nailed into position. A piece of No. 1| sand-paper is folded 



1^ — 



24' 



_^l5l<- 



D 



^|€- 



^3r- 



^^r- 




Fig. 211 — Saw Horse 



with the sand out and is drawn back and forth between the slats. 
This will round and smooth the corners as at B. 

To make the batten (Fig. 212c?) make a line with the gauge in the Batten. 
centre of the cross-pieces. Mark the places for the nails with the 
dividers. To prevent splitting, clamp the top cross-piece firmly in the 
vise and drive in the nails. Remove the piece from the vise and nail 
crosswise, as at C, D, etc., Fig. 212c?. Clamp the piece in the vise 
again, with the nail points up, and straighten the nails either with the 
hand or a pair of pliers. Then clamp the lower cross-piece in the vise 
and drive the nails into it. 



188 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



i8U 




Fig. 212a — Cross-Piece "F." One Piece 









-1* 



nW)" [ 



13a 



Fig. 212b— Upright "E." Two Pieces 



Leap Weight ^ 



ULJUUULJUUUULJUUUULJUUUUUU 



SLATS il X 8 
SPACE ^ 
SLATS 5AriDFAPERED 
r IM CErSTCR TO WIDTH 
or ^" 



■r'[D;i 



im^ 



B A 

Fig. 2I2C — Detail of Heddle for Loom 



190 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



C D 



I 42 



4 2 Tin (Sails ^, on Centers 



ELEVATIOM 



Fig. 2 1 2d — Detail of Batten 






I HOLE 



.1 



o 

End View. 



'^" 



-^ 



Fig. 2126 — Detail of Shuttle 



^1 ;<--^^ii" 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



11)1 



T 
-I* 



■I3i- 



-*T^ li"^ 



o 



G 



< — 


15^ 


. 


> 


^/ 


1 




y. 

"M(0 


] 


^•■12 


1 


1 


ve*' 










'•A 



Fig. 2i2f — Side Piece of Loom. Two Pieces 




I HOLES. 
Fig. 2i2h — Warp and Carpet Rolls. Two Pieces 



A canvas is tacked on to the carpet roll 
and leads up to the front end of the loom. 
The warp is fastened to a slat across the 
end of the canvas and the carpet is thus <_ 



*- i "^ 


.4 







led back to the roll. (7 G, Fio;. 212, shows ■ F T IT 
the direction of the canvas. ' -^ ''- 



J. 



-^ 



MS ; i 



When the loom is finished a little studv F»g- 2i2g-End Pieces -a,' 

-' "B," "C." and "D*' 

will enable one to set it up and weave on it. 



192 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

Part 2. For the High-School 

General The woi'k ill the higli-school can take on at once the more serious 

consideration of tlie probkuii, the material and the tool. If the wood- 
work began with the seventh grade and has followed through the 
several groups given in the outline for the grades, a few weeks' review, 
following closely the sequence of tools and operations given in the 
first three chapters of the general text, will aid the pupils very much 
in taking up the larger and more complicated forms of construction. 
On the other hand, if the wood-work begins in the high-school it will 
be necessary to begin with the simple forms of construction suggested 
in the outline for the grade work, the pupil doing enough work in 
each group to become familiar w^ith the several necessary steps. 
In many cases, however, the problem may be made larger, more 
individual choice may be allowed, and the progress may be much 
faster because of the greater strength and ability of the pupils. 

In the foUowing outline for the high-school course, it is assumed 
that the grade work has been completed. 

Group No. I 

All pupils should do the first three problems in this group. 

Problem No. i 
Review Make a piece to the three dimensions similar to the one ordered 

making 

piece to on page 3. 

three di- . 

mensions. Write the detail and mill order. 

Lay out and rough saw the stock as directed. 
Note carefully the difference between the crosscut and the rip 
saw, and the reasons for the difference. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 193 

Follow carefully the sequence of operations. order of 

procedure. 

Measure stock. 

Examine stock. 

Make working face. 

Make joint edge. 

Plane ends. 

Make third and fourth faces. 

Take each tool as it is used, adjust it, and study the use of 
its parts. 

Learn to select and sharpen the plane and chisel according to the 
use to be made of them. 

Follow carefully all directions for laying out and testing Hnes and 
surfaces. 

Problem No. 2 —The Lap Joint 

Saw the stock from the piece made in the first problem. Review 

Study the method of stating the problem by the mechanical 
drawing. 

Make a mechanical drawing of the separate parts of the mark- 
ing gauge, putting in all necessary dimensions. Make an assembly 
drawing of the gauge without dimensions. 

Make the Lap Joint as directed on pages 35 to 46, inclusive. 

Study the uses and care of the chisel. 

Read what is said about "Cutting or Edge Tools," on pages 90, 
91, and 92. Take a knife and make the cuts to prove what it said. 



Problem No. 3— The Through Mortise and Tenon 



Make the mortise and tenon joint as directed on pages 48 to 56 Review 

1* n 'If !• in mortise 

mclusive. Saw material from the piece made m the first problem. and tenon. 
Note carefully the method of laying out the joint. 
Chisel the material from the mortise. 



194 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 

Pay particular attention to the manner of holding the chisel For 
the paring and the vertical cut used in chiselling the sides and end 
of the mortise (i)age 54, Figs, 70;", and 70j). 



Use me- 
chanical 
judgment. 



What to 
make. 



Statement 
of prob- 
lem. 



Order for 
stock. 



Group No. 2 — A Group of Suggestive Problems 

When beginning any problem, study the parts, note which require 
accuracy and which do not need to be so carefully made. For exam- 
ple, the joints in the umbrella stand (pages 181 and 182, Figs. 207, 
207a, etc.) and the two sides of the legs against which the cross-pieces 
fit should be very accurate. It is not so necessary that the legs be ex- 
actly the same size so long as they look alike when placed in position. 

The side pieces mvist all be the same length between the shoulders, 
but a slight difference in thickness will not detract in the least from 
the value of the piece of furniture. 

In other words, use mechanical judgment — take all the time 
necessary to make an article which will meet every requirement of 
service, but do not take time to do unnecessary work. 

Many of the problems given in the grade work will be suitable for 
high-school work. 

The best article to make is something for which the pupil feels 
a })ositive need, either for the home or for the school. All pupils 
will not want to make the same thing, neither will all want to make 
articles suggested in the different groups. 

When the mechanical drawing is not given, a complete drawing 
should ])e made with all dimensions carefully and plainly written. 
As a rule, a pupil can make any article for which he can make a 
complete drawing. 

Continue to write full detail and mill orders and to figure the cost 
of all material. 

Examine the articles of wood-work about tlie home and school and 
note how they are put together. 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOODA\'ORK 195 

Read carefully Chapter VII, on " Const ruetive Desi<j;n." 
In connection with finishing any article, ivixd Chapter VI. 

Plate Rack 

The plate rack is developed much the same as the shelf 
(pages 173, 174, and 175, Figs. 203 to 20Sc). It is designed to ^^l^ll'^^ 
support certain articles and to occupy a certain space. Mechanically ^*^*^ ™''' 
it must be large and strong enough to meet both requirements. As 
a piece of furniture, it must be pleasing in shape and the finish 
must be in harmony with, the surroundings and the nature of the 
wood. 

The accompan3^ing pictures (Figs. 213, 213«, 2136, etc.) will give 
some suggestions as to the general form and shape of a plate rack. 

Before making a plate rack, find out w^hat dishes are to be placed f ''^^fg'"" 
in it. Measure carefully the space on the wall which the rack is to '■'^''''• 
occupy. If you can, look at a number of plate racks and see how they 
are put together. 

The back looks best if put into the side pieces with rabbeted 
joints. (See page 62, Fig. 85.) The shelves are housed into the 
side pieces and fastened with screw-eyes and screws. (See page 65, 
Figs. 103, 104, and 105.) 

Design and make a j^late rack to meet your own requirements. 

Suggestions for Box Making 

Boxes may be made in an almost unlimited number of ways and 
to meet an ec^ual number of requirements. It is seldom that any 
great number of pupils would want to make exactly the same kind 
of box. It is therefore left for each pupil to make a mechanical 
drawing and to put in all needed dimensions for any box he wishes 
to make. 



196 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Fig. 2 1 3— Plate Rack Which Meets All Mechanical Requirements 




Fig. 213a — Plate Rack Which Meets the Mechanical Re- 
quirements as Well as Those of a Piece of Furniture 




Fig. 213b — Combined Shelf and Plate Rack 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



197 



Figs. 214 and 214a give some general suggestions in box con- General 
struct ion. In cases where the cover and the bod^ of the box are made tions. 
the same width and length, as in Fig. 
214, the box may be made in one solid 
piece and the cover sawed off — this 
insures a good fit for the cover. 

In the case of larger boxes, where 
there is danger of the cover warping, 
the parts of the side pieces which re- 
main with the cover may be screwed 
to it from the under side, as in Fig. 214«. 

Boxes of this type may be made almost any size from a glove 
box to a large tool box. 




Fig. 214— This Box May Be Made In 
Various Sizes 




Fig. 214a — Box Cover, Showing Method of Fastening 
Strips Underneath 



Shirt-Waist Boxes 



Figs. 2146 and 214c show forms of shirt-waist boxes which are 
easy to construct and at the same time make an attractive piece of 
furniture. 

If used as a seat, such boxes are generally made eighteen inches 



high. 



The covers are cleated underneath to prevent warping. 



198 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




Fig. 214b — Shirt-Waist Box Corners Fastened with i"-2" Lag 
Screws 




Fig. 214c — Combined Shirt-Waist Box and Seat 




Fig. 2i4d -Metal-Bound Tool Box for Small Tools. Made of Soft wood 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



199 



Tool Boxes 



Figs. 214c? and 214e show the same I30X shut antl o})en. The metal Metai 

1 !• 1 11' 1 bound 

bmdmgs on the edges and corners are used a great deal m trunk con- box. 

struction and make it possible to build a strong box from very thin 

material. 

The box is nailed or screwed together with a j^lain butt joint 

(see page 62, Fig. 84), 

the corners are then 

bound with either 

sheet iron, galvanized 

iron, or brass. 

To bend the metal 

for the corners, make 

a line on it with a 

pencil or knife. 

Clamp it between two 

boards with the line along a straight-edge, bend the metal part way 

down with the hands. Lay a board on it and strike the board with 

the mallet, thus bending the metal to a sharp, square corner. Do not 

strike cUrectly on the metal with a hammer or a mallet, for that 

will make dents in it. 

A great variety of strong, 
useful boxes may be made 
with this form of construc- 
tion. 

Tool and Repair Tray 




Fig. 2146 — Metal-Bound Tool Box— Open 




Fig. 215 — Tool and Repair Tray 



Fig. 215 is a tool and re- 
pair tray made of soft wood, 
and may be fastened with nails or screws, or may be metal bound 
like the last box. 



200 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 




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A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



201 



Tabouret 

HEIGHT 18' 
HEXAGON TOP 





Fig. 217 — Tabouret. Hexagon Top 



DETAIL or LEG 




.^a_j 



Fig. 217a — Mechanical Drawing of the Tabouret shown in Fig. 217 



202 MANUAL TRAININC; I'OR COMMON SCHOOLS 

Such ;i 1)()X should he made Ion*;' cnou.^h (o cai'i'v a saw of ordhiaiy 
length. 

Utility Bench 

TIk^ ])ui)ils sh(nild make a complete drawing of the utility bench and 
])ut in all dimensions. Make size and shai)e of bench to meet require- 
ments. 

Tabouret 

Figs. 217 and 217« are the perspective and mechanical drawings 
respectively, of a tabouret which is suitable for a large, wude-spreading 
plant like a palm or fern, etc. 



Group 3. A Group of Suggestive Pictures 

Figs. 218, 219, 220, and 221 suggest various articles. The pupil 
choosing to build one of them should make a mechanical drawing of it, 
select the kind of wood to be \ised, and make all dimensions and 
joints to meet requirements. 




TOP 16 XIG' HEIGHT 19' 
Fig. 218 



TABLE 

TOP 2'V SQUARt 
HEIGHT 29' 

Fig. 219 



nAGAZIMC KACK 

HEIOHT AO' 

WIDTH le' 
DEPTH 10" 

Fig. 220 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



203 




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TABOURCT 

OCTAGON SHAPE TOP 

H EIGHT 19" TO'P' 135 ACROSS TL AT 3 




riAGAZiME: "Rack 

HEIGHT 4-0" WIDTH 16* 
DCFTH 10" 



Fig. 221 



Fig. 222 



4 





DETAIL OF KEYED 
JOINT 

DOUBLE SCALE 



Fig. 222a 



204 



MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 



MAGAZINE KACK 



HEIGHT 45" 
WIDTH 16" 
DEPTH lOi' 




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Fig. 223 



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ALL JOINTS AKE MORTISE 
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.t£343 6 9 12 

SCALE IM IMCHCS. 



Fig. 223a 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 205 

Magazine Racks 

Figs. 222 and 223 are magazine racks either of which makes a 
useful and ornamental piece of furniture. Pupils will supply all needed 
dimensions and draw detail of all joints. The shelves should be 
farthest apart at the bottom and the space between each pair of 
shelves should decrease by ^' toward the top. 

Why should there be any difference in the distance between the 
shelves? Look at doors, bookcases, etc., and see if you can answer 
this question. 

Piano Bench 

The piano bench (Fig. 224) may be made with a hinged top and a 
place for music made by putting in a bottom board between the side 
and end pieces. 

Make a complete drawing, giving detail of parts, etc. 




Fig. 224 — Piano Bench — Top 15" x 36". Height 20" 



Library Table 

The library table (Figs. 225 and 225a) may be made to meet 
almost any requirements of service. The standard height of a table 
is thirty inches, and if the top measurements are kept in the ratio 



206 .ALVNILVL TRAINING l-Oll (X)MMON SCHOOLS 



of two ill width (o three in l(>iijj;th the table will always he in good 
pr()j)ortion. 

The bottom brace (.1) should be ])laeed two-thirds of the distance 
from the top of the table down. 

The tendency is to make a table of this kind larger than it should 




Fig. 225— Library Table 



Detail or Shelf 

AMP 

Mortise & Tenoms on Lcgs 



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DtTAIL or CORMCR &BKACC 

^ BRACES FASTENED AT. X-X' 

r, WITH I i' WOOD SCREWS 




1 Z 3*56 9 12 

SCALE IN INCHES. 



Fig. 225a— Mechanical Drawing of Library Table without Dimensions 
* All joints :ire inortiso and tenon. H(>i<!;lit of table ;50" 



A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 



207 



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208 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 

be for the space it is to occupy and to make the legs too large and 
clumsy. 

Look at tables and note the methods of fast(uiing top to side pieces. 
See detail of putting in joints. Then study the place you are going to 
put the table and make a complete drawing. 

In all such constructions one should give careful attention to lay- 
ing out the work. Lay out all parts and check them before cutting. 
Mak(^ the fi-ame of the table before the top is glued; then fasten 
the top in place. 

Morris-Chair 

In Fig. 226 the drawings do not make a complete statement of the 
problem; they only give the general dimensions. The pupil should 
make complete detail drawings and i)ut in all dimensions. 



APPENDIX 

A summary of the course in wood-work may be given as follows : 

General Divisions of the Subject-Matter 

1. Problem. 

2. Material. 

3. Tools. 

Order of Procedure 

1. State Problem. 

2. Select ^Materials. 

3. Choose Tools. 

Problems are stated either by mill order or mechanical drawing. 
^Materials are chosen to meet the recjuirements of the article in which they 
are to be used. 

Order of Tool Work 

1. ^Measuring and Lining. 

2. Sawing. 

3. Planing. 

4. Chiselling. 

5. Boring. 

6. Special Tools and Operations. 

Order of Exercises 

1. Cutting Stock. 

2. (retting Working Face. 

3. Getting; Joint Edge. 

4. End Planing. 

5. Planing to Width. 

6. Planing to Thickness. 

Joinery 

1. T>ap Joints. 

2. Mortise and Tenon Joints. 

3. Butt Joints. 

209 



210 APPENDIX 

Design 

Design all articles for a special purpose. Construction, shape, and finish 
are determined by the purpose for which the articles are to be used. 

Wood Finishing 

1. Planing. 

2. Scraping. 

3. Sand-papering. 

4. Staining. 

5. Filling. (All open-grain woods.) 

6. Varnishing or Painting. 

Equipment for Grade Work 
Bench 

One of the most necessary parts of a wood-working outfit is a strong bench 
equipped with a good vise. Neither the bench nor the vise should be elaborate. 
Rapid-acting metal vises are, to be sure, a convenience but by no means a 
necessity. For the first two years a vise with wooden jaws and a metal 
screw will answer the purpose very well. If a metal vise is used, the jaws 
should be faced with wood to keep the edge tools from being dulled by striking 
against the metal parts. 

Unless carving is to be done there is little need for a tail vise on the bench. 
There are a great many benches on the market made especially for manual- 
training schools, and, as a rule, it would be better to buy ready-made benches. 
There is, however, no reason why a good bench cannot be made at home, and 
if it is equipped with a strong vise it should answer every purpose. 

Tool Equipment for Each Pupil 

If possible, each pupil should be equipped with a two-inch plane bit and 
one j", one f ", and one |" chisel, which he must keep sharp and be otherwise 
personally responsible for. 

Tool Equipment for Each Bench— To Be Used by All Pupils Who Work 

at the Bench 

One 12" Metal Ruler. (The ruler should be graduated into sixteenths, 
eighths, quarters, halves, and into inches, and should not have any other 
graduations, such as tenths, twelfths, etc., for die extra lines are sure to lead to 
mistakes in measurements.) 



APPENDIX 211 

One No. 6 Slovd Knife. 

One 8" Try Square. 

One 8" ^Marking Gauge. 

One 12" Back Saw. 

One 9" Smooth Plane Stock Using a 2" Bit. 

One 6" Screw-Driver. (Champion or equally good.) 

One No. 2 Round Hickory :Mallet. 

One No. 2 ^ladole Hammer (Bell Face). 

One Bench Hook. 

One Bench Brush. 

One Oil-Stone may be used by the pupils working at two benches. 

General Tools for a Class of Twenty-four Grade Pupils 

Three 20" Ten-Point Hand or Crosscut Saws. 
Three 22" Eight-Point Rip Saws. 
SLx Plane Auger Bit Braces, 8" Sweep. 
One Ratchet Brace, 8" Sweep. 

Three Each, i". A", |" , iV", \", and ••" Solid Centre-Stem Auger Bits, 
Dowel Lengths. 

One Expansive Bit — Small Size. 

Two 14" Jack Planes— 2" Bit. 

One Key-Hole Saw . 

Two 14" Turning or Web Saws. 

Six Coping Saws. (Use heavy special blades.) 

Six Spokeshaves. 

Three 12" Half-Round Wood Rasps. 

Six Flat Wood Scrapers. 

Six Nail Sets. 

Four 24" Carpenter Squares. 

Six 8" Compasses. 

Six Adjustable Block Planes. 

Three Screw Countersinks. 

Six Tee Bevels. 

One 10" Monkey Wrench. 

Three Oil Cans. 

One Draw^ Knife. 

Two Each, \", |", V, and f" Middle Sweep Gouges. 

One Dozen 12" Wooden Hand-Screw Clamps. 

One-Half Dozen 14" Wooden Hand-Screw Clamps. 

One-Half Dozen 18" Wooden Hand-Screw Clamps. 

Use a ready-made cold glue. 



212 APPENDIX 

High-School Equipment 

The bench for hiiih-school work should be lar^e and stronij;. It should 
have a heavy top and solid vise. A metal vise with wood-faced jaw will be 
better than the wooden vises, but it is not necessary to have an elaborate vise. 

Individual Tools 

The in(livi(hial tools should be the same as for the grade work, with the 
exception, perhaps, of one additional plane bit. 

Bench Equipment 

The bench equipment should be the same as for the grade work, with the 
addition of a 14" Jack Plane Stock for each bench. 

General Equipment 

To the general equipment of the grade work should be added : 

Two 24" Jointer Planes. 

One Universal Plough Plane, with attachments. 

One Miter-Box and Saw. 

One-Half Dozen Three-Foot Adjustable Cabin et-Makers' Clamps. 

One-Half Dozen Five-Foot Adjustable Cabinet-^Makers' Clamps. 

One (ilue-Heating Outfit (kind and size determined bv the nature and 
amount of work to be done). 

One Cirindstone. The size of which will depend nn the motive power 
available. 

The above outfit of tools is sufficient for doing good work. It would be 
possil)le in many cases to get along with fewer tools and with some kinds of 
work it would be necessary to have more. 

In general it is best to buy very few tools to begin witli and add to them as 
occasion recpiires. 

Always buy good tools. Poor tools are high at any j)rice. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Angle or brace joint 59 

Angles, how to measure them . . . S7, 88, 89 

Angular ))race, universal 109 

Appendix 209 

Assembly drawings (see course of study) 

IGO, 1()2, 164 

Auger bits — 

Bit stop 109 

Braces 107-109 

Kinds of 105-107 

Sc|uaring the bit 56 

To bore stock from mortise with . . 55-56 

Back saw 39-40 

How to use 40-41 

Balances 178 

Bench 210 

Tool equipment for 210-212 

Utility bench 200 

Bench hook 39 

How to make 153-158 

Used in sawing 40 

Bevel (see tee bevel) — 

To bevel edge 82 

To cut bevel for end planing 23 

Bit stop 109 

Black stain 125 

Blind mortise and tenon joint 61 

Block plane 8 

Board measure 84 

Examples in 84-85 

Boring 55-56 

Box dove-tail joint 61 

Boxes — 

Nail or screw box 198 

Shirt-waist boxes 197 

Suggestions for making boxes 195 

Tool boxes 199 

Brace joints 59, 61 

Braces for auger bits 107-109 

21 



PAGE 

Brads 68 

Brown stain < 125 

Butt joints — 

At right angles 61 

Edge butt ()3, 64 

Care of finishing materials 141 

Carpenter's scjuare — 

Board and brace measure 84-86 

Graduation 83 

Used as straight-edge 16 

Used for cross lining 5 

Chair 207 

(See constructive design) 
Chisel- 
Beveled and square edge 102 

Firmer, framing, and paring chisel 102 

Paring cut with 42-47 

Sharpening 41 

Size of 41 

Test for sharpness 41 

Chiselling — 

Lap joint mortise 45 

Lap joint tenon 41-42 

Protecting end of lap joint tenon . . 47 

Through mortise 51-55 

Circular plane 100 

Clamps — 

Bar or cabinet maker's 78 

Hand screw clamps. 78 

Saw clamps 94 

Cleating 64 

Clothes hanger. 177 

Clout nails 68 

Common auger bit 109 

Compasses — the parts of and how to u.se 

them 88-89 

Compass saw 98 

Constructive design, es.sentials of 143 

Coping saw 98 

3 



214 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Corner chisel 105 

Countersink 74 

Course of study — 

Part I. Seventh and eightli grades 

Object of the work and general 

statement 148 

Prot)lem No. 1 149 

Problem No. 2 150 

Problem No. 3 151 

Problem No. 4 151 

Problem No. 5 152 

Group 1 158-163 

Doll cradle 170 

(ieneral problems 176 

Lap joint 163 

Picture frame 164 

Shelf 173 

Tool or knite trav 173 

Wall rack ' 169 

Windmill 167 

Group 2 — 

Balances 178 

Clothes hanger 177 

Loom 185 

Saw horse 185 

Scales 185 

Tabourets 183-185 

Tie rack 178 

Umbrella stand 181 

Part IL For high school — 
Group 1 — 

Problem No. 1 192 

Problem No. 2 193 

Problem No. 3 193 

Group 2 — 

Library table 206 

Magazine rack 203-204 

Morris chair 207 

Piano bench 205 

Plate rack 195 

Repair tray 199 

Shirt-waist boxes 197 

Suggestions for making l)oxes. . 195 

Suggestive pictures 202 

Tabourets 200-203 

Tool boxes 199 

Utility bench 200 

Crosscut saw 95-97 



PAGE 

Design 210 

(See also constructive design.) 

Doll cradle 170 

Dove-tail joint G3 

Dowel joint 63 

Dowel joint reinforced 65 

Drawing (see mechanical drawing). 

(See also perspective drawing.) 
Draw-knife 109 

Edge — 

To bevel 82 

To make round 82 

Edge tools, j)rinciplesof 90 

Egg-shell finish 138 

End lap joint 58 

End planing 20-24 

Equipment (see appendix) 138 

Escutcheon pins 68 

Examples: board measure 84-85 

Facts the designer should know 147 

Feather or spline joint 62, 64 

Filling (see wood filling). 
Finishing (see wood finishing). 

Finishing outfit 141-142 

Firmer chisel 102 

Formula for making silex filler 129 

Formulte for making stains 124-127 

Fostner bit 106 

Framing chisel 102 

Framing square (see carpenter's square). 
Fuming 127 

Gain joint 62 

Gauge, bit 109 

Gauge (see marking gauge). 

Gimlet bits. 107 

Glue — 

Brushes for 78 

Clamps for 78 

Kinds of 75 

Liquid glue 76 

Pot for 77-78 

Sizing with 77 

To prepare for use 75-76 



INDEX 



215 



PAGE 

Gluing — 

Directions for 7(5 

Tools for 77 

Gouges 103-104 

Graduations on scales and rulers 4 

Grain, fibres of wood 2 

Sawing with or across 5 

The effect of, on the shape of tools . . 2 

Grinding plane bit 12 

Grindstone 12, 110 

Group (see course of study). 

Half lap joint 35,58,59 

Hammers 69-70 

High-school course of study 192 

Housed joint 61 

Inches, symbol for 3 

Individual tools for work bench 210-212 

Jack plane 8, 9, 10 

Joinery 209 

Joint edge, making, marking, testing. . 16-17 

Jointer plane 10 

Jointing stock defined 48 

Joints — 

Brace joints 59, 60, 61 

Butt joints 61,62,63 

Dove-tail 59,61 

Dowel 63,66 

Housed 61 

Keyed 65 

Lap 25,58,59 

Matched 62,64 

Mortise and tenon 48, 56, 59, 60, 61 

Rabbeted 64 

Spline or feather 62, 64 

Keyed joint 65 

Key-hole saw 98 

Knife — 

As a laying-out tool 81-82 

Sloyd knife 82 

To make lines with 21-23 

lyag bolt or screw 75 

Lag bolt used on box corner 65 



PAGE 

Lap joint — 

Statement of problem 25, 35-36 

To lay out and make 36-47 

Types of 58-59 

Laying out dimensions — 

By method of superi)osition 43 

By use of gauge 17-19 

By use of knife 21-23 

By use of pencil 4, 8 

By use of try square 83 

Tools for 74 

Library table 206 

Lines (see laying out dimensions). 

Lumber, order for 3 

(See also board measure.) 

Measurements — 

To locate with knife and rule .... 21 

To make or lay out 4, 20-23 

Use of gauge 18-19 

Use of knife 21 

Use of square 22-23 

Mechanical drawing — 

Compared with the |)hotograph and 

perspective drawing 27 

Dimensions on drawings 33-35 

Elevation 28-31 

Invisible lines 31-32 

Language of the mechanic 26 

Necessity of 25-26 

Number of views necessary 32 

Placing of views 31 

Plan 28-31 

Principles of 27-35 

Problem of lap joint stated by . . 35-36 
Scale of drawings 33 

Miter joint 61-63 

Mortise and tenon joint — 

Perspective drawing of 48 

To lay out and make 49-57 

Types of 40 

Nail set 71 

Nail or screw box 159-160 

Nail,'^ 

Kinds of 66-69 

Order for 67-68 

Size of 67 

Table of sizes and lengths 68 



216 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Oil stain 121 

Oil-stone llU-111 

Use of 12^13 

Order — 

Detail order for lumber 155 

Mill order for lumber 3 

Method of writing for brads 68 

Method of writing for lumber 3 

Method of writing for nails ()7-68 

Method of writing for screws 72 

Method of writing for tacks ()9 

Painting 113, 13!)-14() 

Paring chisel 1U2 

Paring cut with chisel 42, 43 

Pencil— 

For laying out rough dimensions. . . . 4-5 
For laying out round and beveled 

corners and edges 82 

Piano bench 205 

Picture frame 1(54 

Plain butt joint (31 

Planes — 

Adjusting 15 

Block plane 9 

Grinding 12 

Jack plane 8 

Kinds of 8-10 

Length of 10 

Oil-stoning 12-13 

Principal parts of 13-15 

Shape of bit 9 

Smooth ])lane 9 

Special planes 99 101 

Use of, general statement 10-11 

Problems, general 

Rabbeted joints — 

At right angles (il 

Edge ral>beted joints (54 

Repair tray '. 199 

Rip saw 5-7, 94-95 

Router 109 

Ruler — 

(Iraduatioiis on 4 

Kinds of SO SI 

Used for laying out rough diiiii'M- 
sions 4 



PAGE 

Sand-paper and its use 117-119 

Sand-paper l)lock 118-119 

Saw— 

Clami) 93-94 

Filing and setting 92-97 

(leneral facts about size antl shape 

of teeth 92 

Hand and cross-cut saw, how made (i 

Rip saw, how made 5 

Sawing, rule for splitting line 41, 152 

Saw set 93 

Scale, linear measure — 

Dimensions on the 4 

Of mechanical drawing 33 

Trough ton scale 80 

vScales for weighing 1 85 

Scraper — 

How to use 1 1(5-117 

Kinds of 113 

Sharpening 114-116 

Screw-driver 74 

Screw-eye used as substitute for cleat . . 64-65 
Screws — 

Countersinking head 74 

Fastening with 73-74 

Finish of 71 

Kinds of 71 

Order for 72-73 

Size of 71-72 

Table of standard sizes and lengths . 72 

Use of 73 

Sharpening plane bit 12-13 

vShelf, design of 173 

Shirt-waist boxes 197 

Silex 129 

Slip mortise and tenon joint (51 

Socket chisel .' 102 

Special saws 97-98 

Spirit stains 122 

Spokeshave 101 

Square (see carpenter's square and also 
try square). 

Squaring saw cut 7 

Starting saw cut 6-7 

Summary — 

First chapter 24 

Second chni)ter 47 



INDEX 



217 



PAGE 

Tables — 

Board and brace measure 84 

Lil)rarv table 206 

Of standard nail sizes 68 

Of standard screw sizes 72 

Of standard tack sizes 69 

Square table 202 

Tabouret 183-184, 201-205 

Tacks- 
Order for 09 

Table of sizes 69 

Tang chisel 102 

Through mortise and tenon joint, how to 

lay out and how to make 48 

Tie bevel, the parts of and how to use 

it 86-89 

Tie rack 177 

Toe nailing 71 

Tool or knife trav 173 

Tool boxes " 199 

Tool equipment 210-212 

Tools — 

Edge tools, principle of 90-92 

Grouped according to use 79-111 

Miscellaneous 109-111 

Necessity for two types 2 

Troughton scale 80 

Trunk nails 68 

Try square — 

Parts of 15 

Testing chisel cut 43 

Testing gauge line 19 

To square auger bit 56 

To square around a piece 38-39 

Used as straight-edge 16, 22-23 

Used as a square 16-17 

Turning or web saw 98 



PAGE 

Umbrella stand 181 

Universal angular brace 109 

Universal plane 99-100 

Utility bench 200 

Varnish — ■ 

Applying 134, 135 

Brushes 133-134 

Definition of 131 

Dish 142 

General facts about 133-137 

Kinds of 131-132 

Sanding and rubbing 136-137 

Shellac varnish 134-138 

Vocabulary learned 11 

Wall rack 169 

Water stain 122 

Wax finish 138-139 

Windmill 176 

Wood filling 128 

1. Materials 128 

2. Object of 128 

Silex filler 129 

To apply filler 129-131 

W^ood finishing — 

Care of materials 141-142 

Hard wood 113 

Materials and how to use them . 120-142 

Painting 113 

Sand-papering 1 17-119 

Scraper and its use • 114-117 

Wood grain or fibre 2 

Wood staining 121-122 

Wood-working — general statement of 
problem 1-2 . 



FFB 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



013 824 671 1 



